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A gallery of Science Fiction Ledgends and theiw works. Science Fiction Writers Hall of Fame Isaac Asimov Asimov is one of the foundational voices of 20th-century science fiction. His work often incorporated hard science, creating an engaging blend of scientific accuracy and imaginative speculation. Known for his "Robot" and "Foundation" series, Asimov's ability to integrate scientific principles with compelling narratives has left an enduring legacy in the field. Arthur C. Clarke The author of numerous classics including "2001: A Space Odyssey," Clarke's work is notable for its visionary, often prophetic approach to future technologies and space exploration. His thoughtful, well-researched narratives stand as enduring examples of 'hard' science fiction. Robert A. Heinlein Heinlein, one of science fiction's most controversial and innovative writers, is best known for books like "Stranger in a Strange Land" and "Starship Troopers." His work is known for its strong political ideologies and exploration of societal norms. Philip K. Dick With stories often marked by paranoid and dystopian themes, Dick's work explores philosophical, sociological, and political ideas. His books like "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?" inspired numerous films, solidifying his impact on popular culture. Ray Bradbury Known for his poetic prose and poignant societal commentary, Bradbury's work transcends genre. His dystopian novel "Fahrenheit 451" remains a touchstone in the canon of 20th-century literature, and his short stories continue to inspire readers and writers alike. Ursula K. Le Guin Le Guin's works, such as "The Left Hand of Darkness" and the "Earthsea" series, often explored themes of gender, sociology, and anthropology. Her lyrical prose and profound explorations of human nature have left an indelible mark on science fiction. Frank Herbert The author of the epic "Dune" series, Herbert crafted a detailed and complex future universe. His work stands out for its intricate plotlines, political intrigue, and environmental themes. William Gibson Gibson is known for his groundbreaking cyberpunk novel "Neuromancer," where he coined the term 'cyberspace.' His speculative fiction often explores the effects of technology on society. H.G. Wells Although Wells's works were published on the cusp of the 20th century, his influence carried well into it. Known for classics like "The War of the Worlds" and "The Time Machine", Wells is often hailed as a father of science fiction. His stories, filled with innovative ideas and social commentary, have made an indelible impact on the genre. Larry Niven Known for his 'Ringworld' series and 'Known Space' stories, Niven's hard science fiction works are noted for their imaginative, scientifically plausible scenarios and compelling world-building. Octavia Butler Butler's work often incorporated elements of Afrofuturism and tackled issues of race and gender. Her "Xenogenesis" series and "Kindred" are known for their unique and poignant explorations of human nature and society. Orson Scott Card Best known for his "Ender's Game" series, Card's work combines engaging narrative with introspective examination of characters. His stories often explore ethical and moral dilemmas. Alfred Bester Bester's "The Stars My Destination" and "The Demolished Man" are considered classics of the genre. His work is recognized for its powerful narratives and innovative use of language. Kurt Vonnegut Though not strictly a science fiction writer, Vonnegut's satirical and metafictional work, like "Slaughterhouse-Five," often used sci-fi elements to highlight the absurdities of human condition. Harlan Ellison Known for his speculative and often dystopian short stories, Ellison's work is distinguished by its cynical tone, inventive narratives, and biting social commentary. Stanislaw Lem Lem's work, such as "Solaris," often dealt with philosophical questions. Philip José Farmer Known for his "Riverworld" series, Farmer's work often explored complex philosophical and social themes through creative world-building and the use of historical characters. He is also recognized for his innovations in the genre and the sexual explicitness of some of his work. J. G. Ballard Best known for his novels "Crash" and "High-Rise", Ballard's work often explored dystopian modernities and psychological landscapes. His themes revolved around surrealistic and post-apocalyptic visions of the human condition, earning him a unique place in the sci-fi genre. AI Science Fiction Hall of Fame As a science fiction aficionado and AI expert, there's nothing more exciting to me t han exploring the relationship between sci-fi literature and artificial intelligence. Science fiction is an innovative genre, often years ahead of its time, an d has influenced AI's development in ways you might not expect. But it's not just techies like us who should be interested - students of AI can learn a lot from these visionary authors. So buckle up, as we're about to embark on an insider's journey through the most famous science fiction writers in the hall of fame! The Science Fiction-AI Connection Science fiction and AI go together like peanut butter and jelly. In fact, one could argue that some of our most advanced AI concepts and technologies sprung from the seeds planted by sci-fi authors. I remember as a young techie, curled up with my dog, reading Isaac Asimov’s "I, Robot". I was just a teenager, but that book completely changed how I saw the potential of AI. The Most Famous Sci-Fi Writers and their AI Visions Ready for a deep dive into the works of the greats? Let's take a closer look at some of the most famous science fiction writers in the hall of fame, and how their imaginations have shaped the AI we know today. Isaac Asimov: Crafting the Ethics of AI You can't talk about AI in science fiction without first mentioning Isaac Asimov. His "I, Robot" introduced the world to the Three Laws of Robotics, a concept that continues to influence AI development today. As an AI student, I remember being fascinated by how Asimov's robotic laws echoed the ethical considerations we must grapple with in real-world AI. Philip K. Dick: Dreaming of Synthetic Humans Next up, Philip K. Dick. If you've seen Blade Runner, you've seen his influence at work. In "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?" (the book Blade Runner is based on), Dick challenges us to question what it means to be human and how AI might blur those lines. It's a thought that has certainly kept me up late on more than a few coding nights! Arthur C. Clarke: AI, Autonomy, and Evolution Arthur C. Clarke's "2001: A Space Odyssey" has been both a source of inspiration and caution in my work. The AI character HAL 9000 is an eerie portrayal of autonomous AI systems' potential power and risks. It's a reminder that AI, like any technology, can be a double-edged sword. William Gibson: AI in Cyberspace Finally, William Gibson's "Neuromancer" gave us a vision of AI in cyberspace before the internet was even a household name. I still remember my shock reading about an AI entity in the digital ether - years later, that same concept is integral to AI in cybersecurity. The Power of Creativity These authors' works are testaments to the power of creativity in imagining the possibilities of AI. As students, you'll need to push boundaries and think outside the box - just like these authors did. Understanding Potential and Limitations The stories these authors spun provide us with vivid scenarios of AI's potential and limitations. They remind us that while AI has massive potential, it's not without its challenges and dangers. Conclusion And there we have it - our deep dive into the most famous science fiction writers in the hall of fame and their influence on AI. Their work is not just fiction; it's a guiding light, illuminating the path that has led us to the AI world we live in today. As students, we have the opportunity to shape the AI of tomorrow, just as these authors did. So why not learn from the best? Science Fiction Greats of the 21st Century Neal Stephenson is renowned for his complex narratives and incredibly detailed world-building. His Baroque Cycle trilogy is a historical masterpiece, while Snow Crash brought the concept of the 'Metaverse' into popular culture. China Miéville has won several prestigious awards for his 'weird fiction,' a blend of fantasy and science fiction. Books like Perdido Street Station and The City & The City are both acclaimed and popular. His work is known for its rich, evocative language and innovative concepts. Kim Stanley Robinson is best known for his Mars trilogy, an epic tale about the terraforming and colonization of Mars. He's famous for blending hard science, social commentary, and environmental themes. He continues this trend in his 21st-century works like the climate-focused New York 2140. Margaret Atwood, while also recognized for her mainstream fiction, has made significant contributions to science fiction. Her novel The Handmaid's Tale and its sequel The Testaments provide a chilling dystopian vision of a misogynistic society. Her MaddAddam trilogy further underscores her unique blend of speculative fiction and real-world commentary. Alastair Reynolds is a leading figure in the hard science fiction subgenre, known for his space opera series Revelation Space. His work, often centered around post-humanism and AI, is praised for its scientific rigor and inventive plotlines. Reynolds, a former scientist at the European Space Agency, incorporates authentic scientific concepts into his stories. Paolo Bacigalupi's works often deal with critical environmental and socio-economic themes. His debut novel The Windup Girl won both the Hugo and Nebula awards and is renowned for its bio-punk vision of the future. His YA novel, Ship Breaker, also received critical acclaim, winning the Michael L. Printz Award. Ann Leckie's debut novel Ancillary Justice, and its sequels, are notable for their exploration of AI, gender, and colonialism. Ancillary Justice won the Hugo, Nebula, and Arthur C. Clarke Awards, a rare feat in science fiction literature. Her unique narrative styles and complex world-building are highly appreciated by fans and critics alike. Iain M. Banks was a Scottish author known for his expansive and imaginative 'Culture' series. Though he passed away in 2013, his work remains influential in the genre. His complex storytelling and exploration of post-scarcity societies left a significant mark in science fiction. William Gibson is one of the key figures in the cyberpunk sub-genre, with his novel Neuromancer coining the term 'cyberspace.' In the 21st century, he continued to innovate with his Blue Ant trilogy. His influence on the genre, in terms of envisioning the impacts of technology on society, is immense. Ted Chiang is highly regarded for his thoughtful and philosophical short stories. His collection Stories of Your Life and Others includes "Story of Your Life," which was adapted into the film Arrival. Each of his carefully crafted tales explores a different scientific or philosophical premise. Charlie Jane Anders is a diverse writer who combines elements of science fiction, fantasy, and more in her books. Her novel All the Birds in the Sky won the 2017 Nebula Award for Best Novel. She's also known for her work as an editor of the science fiction site io9. N.K. Jemisin is the first author to win the Hugo Award for Best Novel three years in a row, for her Broken Earth Trilogy. Her works are celebrated for their diverse characters, intricate world-building, and exploration of social issues. She's one of the most influential contemporary voices in fantasy and science fiction. Liu Cixin is China's most prominent science fiction writer and the first Asian author to win the Hugo Award for Best Novel, for The Three-Body Problem. His Remembrance of Earth's Past trilogy is praised for its grand scale and exploration of cosmic civilizations. His work blends hard science with complex philosophical ideas. John Scalzi is known for his accessible writing style and humor. His Old Man's War series is a popular military science fiction saga, and his standalone novel Redshirts won the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Novel. He's also recognized for his blog "Whatever," where he discusses writing, politics, and more. Cory Doctorow is both a prolific author and an advocate for internet freedom. His novel Little Brother, a critique of increased surveillance, is frequently used in educational settings. His other novels, like Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom, are known for their examination of digital rights and technology's impact on society. Octavia Butler (1947-2006) was an award-winning author known for her incisive exploration of race, gender, and societal structures within speculative fiction. Her works like the Parable series and Fledgling have continued to influence and inspire readers well into the 21st century. Her final novel, Fledgling, a unique take on vampire mythology, was published in 2005. Peter F. Hamilton is best known for his space opera series such as the Night's Dawn trilogy and the Commonwealth Saga. His work is often noted for its scale, complex plotting, and exploration of advanced technology and alien civilizations. Despite their length, his books are praised for maintaining tension and delivering satisfying conclusions. Ken Liu is a prolific author and translator in science fiction. His short story "The Paper Menagerie" is the first work of fiction to win the Nebula, Hugo, and World Fantasy Awards. As a translator, he's known for bringing Liu Cixin's The Three-Body Problem to English-speaking readers. Ian McDonald is a British author known for his vibrant and diverse settings, from a future India in River of Gods to a colonized Moon in the Luna series. His work often mixes science fiction with other genres, and his narrative style has been praised as vivid and cinematic. He has won several awards, including the Hugo, for his novellas and novels. James S.A. Corey is the pen name of collaborators Daniel Abraham and Ty Franck. They're known for The Expanse series, a modern space opera exploring politics, humanity, and survival across the solar system. The series has been adapted into a critically acclaimed television series. Becky Chambers is praised for her optimistic, character-driven novels. Her debut, The Long Way to a Small, Angry Planet, kickstarted the popular Wayfarers series and was shortlisted for the Arthur C. Clarke Award. Her focus on interpersonal relationships and diverse cultures sets her work apart from more traditional space operas. Yoon Ha Lee's Machineries of Empire trilogy, beginning with Ninefox Gambit, is celebrated for its complex world-building and innovative use of technology. The series is known for its intricate blend of science, magic, and politics. Lee is also noted for his exploration of gender and identity in his works. Ada Palmer's Terra Ignota series is a speculative future history that blends philosophy, politics, and social issues in a post-scarcity society. The first book in the series, Too Like the Lightning, was a finalist for the Hugo Award for Best Novel. Her work is appreciated for its unique narrative voice and in-depth world-building. Charlie Stross specializes in hard science fiction and space opera, with notable works including the Singularity Sky series and the Laundry Files series. His books often feature themes such as artificial intelligence, post-humanism, and technological singularity. His novella "Palimpsest" won the Hugo Award in 2010. Kameron Hurley is known for her raw and gritty approach to science fiction and fantasy. Her novel The Light Brigade is a time-bending military science fiction story, while her Bel Dame Apocrypha series has been praised for its unique world-building. Hurley's work often explores themes of gender, power, and violence. Andy Weir shot to fame with his debut novel The Martian, a hard science fiction tale about a man stranded on Mars. It was adapted into a successful Hollywood film starring Matt Damon. His later works, Artemis and Project Hail Mary, continue his trend of scientifically rigorous, yet accessible storytelling. Jeff VanderMeer is a central figure in the New Weird genre, blending elements of science fiction, fantasy, and horror. His Southern Reach Trilogy, starting with Annihilation, explores ecological themes through a mysterious, surreal narrative. The trilogy has been widely praised, with Annihilation adapted into a major motion picture. Nnedi Okorafor's Africanfuturist works blend science fiction, fantasy, and African culture. Her novella Binti won both the Hugo and Nebula awards. Her works are often celebrated for their unique settings, compelling characters, and exploration of themes such as cultural conflict and identity. Claire North is a pen name of Catherine Webb, who also writes under Kate Griffin. As North, she has written several critically acclaimed novels, including The First Fifteen Lives of Harry August, which won the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel. Her works are known for their unique concepts and thoughtful exploration of time and memory. M.R. Carey is the pen name of Mike Carey, known for his mix of horror and science fiction. His novel The Girl With All the Gifts is a fresh take on the zombie genre, and it was later adapted into a film. Carey's works are celebrated for their compelling characters and interesting twists on genre conventions. Greg Egan is an Australian author known for his hard science fiction novels and short stories. His works often delve into complex scientific and mathematical concepts, such as artificial life and the nature of consciousness. His novel Diaspora is considered a classic of hard science fiction. Steven Erikson is best known for his epic fantasy series, the Malazan Book of the Fallen. However, he has also made significant contributions to science fiction with works like Rejoice, A Knife to the Meat. His works are known for their complex narratives, expansive world-building, and philosophical undertones. Vernor Vinge is a retired San Diego State University professor of mathematics and computer science and a Hugo award-winning science fiction author. Although his most famous work, A Fire Upon the Deep, was published in the 20th century, his later work including the sequel, Children of the Sky, has continued to influence the genre. He is also known for his 1993 essay "The Coming Technological Singularity," in which he argues that rapid technological progress will soon lead to the end of the human era. Jo Walton has written several novels that mix science fiction and fantasy, including the Hugo and Nebula-winning Among Others. Her Thessaly series, starting with The Just City, is a thought experiment about establishing Plato's Republic in the ancient past. She is also known for her non-fiction work on the history of science fiction and fantasy. Hugh Howey is best known for his series Wool, which started as a self-published short story and grew into a successful series. His works often explore post-apocalyptic settings and the struggle for survival and freedom. Howey's success has been a notable example of the potential of self-publishing in the digital age. Richard K. Morgan is a British author known for his cyberpunk and dystopian narratives. His debut novel Altered Carbon, a hardboiled cyberpunk mystery, was adapted into a Netflix series. His works are characterized by action-packed plots, gritty settings, and exploration of identity and human nature. Hannu Rajaniemi is a Finnish author known for his unique blend of hard science and imaginative concepts. His debut novel, The Quantum Thief, and its sequels have been praised for their inventive ideas and complex, layered narratives. Rajaniemi, who holds a Ph.D. in mathematical physics, incorporates authentic scientific concepts into his fiction. Stephen Baxter is a British author who often writes hard science fiction. His Xeelee sequence is an expansive future history series covering billions of years. Baxter is known for his rigorous application of scientific principles and his exploration of cosmic scale and deep time. C.J. Cherryh is an American author who has written more than 60 books since the mid-1970s. Her Foreigner series, which began in the late '90s and has continued into the 21st century, is a notable science fiction series focusing on political conflict and cultural interaction. She has won multiple Hugo Awards and was named a Grand Master by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America. Elizabeth Bear is an American author known for her diverse range of science fiction and fantasy novels. Her novel Hammered, which combines cybernetics and Norse mythology, started the acclaimed Jenny Casey trilogy. She has won multiple awards, including the Hugo, for her novels and short stories. Larry Niven is an American author best known for his Ringworld series, which won the Hugo, Nebula, and Locus awards. In the 21st century, he continued the series and collaborated with other authors on several other works, including the Bowl of Heaven series with Gregory Benford. His works often explore hard science concepts and future history. David Mitchell is known for his genre-blending novels, such as Cloud Atlas, which weaves six interconnected stories ranging from historical fiction to post-apocalyptic science fiction. The novel was shortlisted for the Booker Prize and adapted into a film. His works often explore themes of reality, identity, and interconnectedness. Robert J. Sawyer is a Canadian author known for his accessible style and blend of hard science fiction with philosophical and ethical themes. His Neanderthal Parallax trilogy, which started in 2002, examines an alternate world where Neanderthals became the dominant species. He is a recipient of the Hugo, Nebula, and John W. Campbell Memorial awards. Daniel Suarez is known for his high-tech thrillers. His debut novel Daemon and its sequel Freedom™ explore the implications of autonomous computer programs on society. His books are praised for their action-packed narratives and thought-provoking themes related to technology and society. Kazuo Ishiguro is a Nobel Prize-winning author, known for his poignant and thoughtful novels. Never Let Me Go, published in 2005, combines elements of science fiction and dystopian fiction in a heartbreaking narrative about cloned children raised for organ donation. Ishiguro's work often grapples with themes of memory, time, and self-delusion. Malka Older is a humanitarian worker and author known for her Infomocracy trilogy. The series, starting with Infomocracy, presents a near-future world where micro-democracy has become the dominant form of government. Her work stands out for its political savvy and exploration of information technology. James Lovegrove is a versatile British author, known for his Age of Odin series and Pantheon series which blend science fiction with mythology. His Firefly novel series, based on the popular Joss Whedon TV show, has been well received by fans. He's praised for his engaging writing style and inventive blending of genres. Emily St. John Mandel is known for her post-apocalyptic novel Station Eleven, which won the Arthur C. Clarke Award and was a finalist for the National Book Award and the PEN/Faulkner Award. Her works often explore themes of memory, fate, and interconnectedness. Her writing is praised for its evocative prose and depth of character. Sue Burke's debut novel Semiosis is an engaging exploration of human and alien coexistence, as well as the sentience of plants. The book was a finalist for the John W. Campbell Memorial Award and spawned a sequel, Interference. Burke's work is known for its realistic characters and unique premise. Tade Thompson is a British-born Yoruba author known for his Rosewater trilogy, an inventive blend of alien invasion and cyberpunk tropes set in a future Nigeria. The first book in the series, Rosewater, won the Arthur C. Clarke Award. His works are celebrated for their unique settings and blend of African culture with classic and innovative science fiction themes. Send Your Suggestion First name Last name Email What did you like best? How can we improve? Send Feedback Thanks for sharing your feedback with us!

book excerpt from the science fiction novel Captain Hawkins. Captain Hawkins AMAZON Only the Brave After twenty-four hours of non-stop brutal violence and cruel bloodshed, the soldiers had had no sleep and little food or water. They had repeatedly engaged in hand-to-hand combat against the demonstrators. Even though the soldiers were heavily armed and armored, they had taken serious casualties. Now, tired and angry, everyone they found looked like a rebel. The hospital had been a place of healing—now it became a makeshift prison. In a large observation room, the soldiers sorted people into three groups: the wounded men, a smaller group of women and children, and the medical personnel including Hawkins and Joshua. With bloodthirsty eagerness, the ranking officer repeated, “Take these rebels out and shoot them,” pointing to the first group. As the first group was headed toward the door, Hawkins stepped forward, planted his feet wide apart, and shouted, “Stop, Colonel!” Outraged at the ruthlessness of the order, he put his hands on his hips and said, “You can’t execute these men.” The officer turned toward the disturbance and said harshly, “It is my duty to safeguard the nation. Am I to care for the lives of rebels?” “For the sake of humanity, yes,” said Hawkins, his voice strong and vibrant. With an unyielding stare, he added, “This is still a civilized world, not a lawless state.” Crossing his arms without taking his eyes off the interloper, the immaculately attired colonel seemed disconcerted. Hawkins said, “These men have not been properly charged.” The colonel remained unimpressed. “There are always witnesses to any massacre, Colonel.” Making a grand sweeping gesture with his arms, he added, “Just look around.” The colonel frowned as he surveyed the frightened faces of the women and children. Then seeing the uncertainty on the faces of his own men, his frown deepened into an angry scowl. “Eventually, there’ll be a reckoning,” said Hawkins, waving his hand to take in the hellish carnage throughout the city. “The government will look for scapegoats to justify this harsh reality. It wouldn’t be prudent to be so easily identified with merciless acts.” The colonel stared daggers at Hawkins. For a moment his hand hovered over his pistol, as if he were considering putting a bullet in Hawkins’s head right then. Instead, his eyes narrowed as recognition dawned on his face. He sneered, “Why, I know you. I served with you at Gambaro Ridge.” A smile crept across his face, and he said with a strange blend of sarcasm and irony, “You were killed.” “Not quite,” responded Hawkins with an outlandish grin. “I saw you shot to pieces when you recklessly charged the enemy stronghold,” said the colonel, smirking, and nodding his head. He laughed, “That was insane. You were definitely killed.” “As you say,” said Hawkins, letting a chortle escape his lips. “Your assault gave the rest of us a chance to escape,” the colonel remarked thoughtfully, considering the memory in a new light. Undecided on how to deal with such an uncommon man, the colonel pointed at him and exclaimed to his troops, “Ha! Here’s something you rarely see—a disgruntled ex-Marine.” A roar of laughter erupted from his soldiers. Hawkins threw his head back and laughed as well, “Ha!” The colonel stepped closer to inspect him. A small, jagged scar over his right brow was nearly hidden behind the shock of unkempt sandy brown hair, which draped over his forehead in a careless manner. He was tall with an athletic build, and he stood forward on balls of feet, like a boxer. His strong jaw and intense gray-blue eyes purported an iron will. The colonel remembered Hawkins as a courageous, but utterly reckless, officer. Hawkins recognized the colonel as well. Anthony Rodríguez was swarthy, ruggedly handsome with a broad mustache and a muscular physique. Hawkins remembered him as a fashionable man, his uniform always well-tailored. What he lacked in imagination, Rodríguez made up for as a stickler for protocol, meticulously carrying out orders to further his career. After a long moment, Rodríguez barked, “Don’t be foolish enough to believe I feel any obligation to you. You did your job. Now I’m doing mine.” Throughout the observation room, frightened people waited for the tension to burst. They realized that in many ways their fate was bound together with this tête-à-tête. Rodríguez said, “I don’t believe your battlefield antics were ever acknowledged. Some might have thought you a fool.” Stone faced, Hawkins retorted, “Then you stand here today—alive—as a testament to my folly.” Coloring slightly, Rodríguez took a moment to recall his orders and began parsing the words to extract their broader intent. Finally, he asked, “What are you doing here? Are you a rebel?” “I’m no rebel,” said Hawkins adamantly. “The generators were failing. No technicians were left to bring up the backups, so I was called here to protect the women and children.” “Called here? By whom?” “What does that matter?” asked Hawkins. “I’ll decide what’s important,” Rodríguez snapped. Joshua spoke up, “It was me.” “What was your business here?” “I came to help.” “Help whom? Were you with the demonstrators?” “Yes, but I was looking for my mother . . .” “There. By his own admission, he’s a member of the rebels,” said the colonel delighted at finding something clearly within the bounds of his orders. Joshua tried to explain, “I not a rebel. I just wanted to …” Rodríguez ordered, “Put him with the rest of the rebels.” As the soldiers pulled Joshua away and placed him with the group of rebels, Hawkins said, “He’s just a boy. He was involved in things beyond his understanding.” Rodríguez shot a disdainful look at Hawkins and asked, “Oh! Were things beyond your understanding, when you aided the rebels hiding in this building?” “I came to succor the weak and helpless, as is the duty of any man of honor,” said Hawkins. Offended and enraged, Rodríguez stormed, “No! You were aiding a rebel force attacking our nation’s capital.” “I—was—saving—lives,” spat Hawkins. “Once again!” The veiled reference to Gambaro Ridge made Rodríguez flushed crimson—the emotional cocktail of anger and humiliation was so powerful that his face looked as if it would explode. His voice contorted into a rapid-fire staccato of orders, “Place this man under arrest—along with the rest of these rebels—march them all to prison.” Several pairs of hands reached out and grabbed Hawkins, but as he twisted free several more soldiers joined in the brawl. Six soldiers were as battered and bruised as Hawkins before they managed to pin him down. They bound his wrists and flung him against the wall with the rebels. His dark eyes blazing with contempt, Hawkins’s deep voice boomed, “Anthony Rodríguez, if I survive this barbarity,” he took a deep breath, and said slowly, “I hope to chance upon you—once again.” Other distraught prisoners began yelling their own protestations, but Rodríguez bellowed over the clamor, “Take them away! Take them away!”

excerpt of the book e-Video on deploying video on the Web. e-Video AMAZON Chapter 1 Bandwidth for Video Electronic-Video, or “e-Video”, includes all audio/video clips that are distributed and played over the Internet, either by direct download or streaming video. The problem with video, however, has been its inability to travel over networks without clogging the lines. If you’ve ever tried to deliver video, you know that even after heroic efforts on your part (including optimizing the source video, the hardware, the software, the editing and the compression process) there remains a significant barrier to delivering your video over the Web. That is the “last mile” connection to the client. So before we explain the details of how to produce, capture, edit and compress video for the Web, we had better begin by describing the near term opportunities for overcoming the current bandwidth limitations for delivering video over the Internet. In this chapter, we will describe how expanding broadband fiber networks will reach out to the “last mile” to homes and businesses creating opportunities for video delivery. In order to accomplish this, we will start by quantifing three essential concerns: the file size requirements for sending video data over the Internet, the network fiber capacity of the Internet for the near future and the progress of narrowband (28.8Kbps) to broadband (1.5 Mbps) over the “last mile.” This will provide an understanding of the difficulties being overcome in transforming video from the current limited narrowband streaming video to broadband video delivery. Transitioning from Analog to Digital Technology Thomas Alva Edison’s contributions to the telegraph, phonograph, telephone, motion pictures and radio helped transform the 20th Century with analog appliances in the home and the factory. Many of Edison’s contributions were based on the continuous electrical analog signal. Today, Edison’s analog appliances are being replaced by digital ones. Why? Let’s begin by comparing the basic analog and digital characteristics. Analog signals move along wires as electromagnetic waves. The signal’s frequency refers to the number of time per second that a wave oscillates in a complete cycle. The higher the speed, or frequency, the more cycles of a wave are completed in a given period of time. A baud rate is one analog electric cycle or wave per second. Frequency is also stated in hertz (Hz). (Kilohertz or kHz represents 1000 Hz, MHz represents 1,000,000 Hz and GHz represents a billion Hz). Analog signals, such as voice, radio, and TV involve oscillations within specified ranges of frequency. For example: Voice has a range of 300 to 3300 Hz Analog cable TV has a range of 54 MHz to 750MHz Analog microwave towers have a range of 2 to 12 GHz Sending a signal along analog wires is similar to sending water through a pipe. The further it travels the more force it loses and the weaker it becomes. It can also pick up vibrations, or noise, which introduces signal errors. Today, analog technology has become available world-wide through the following transmission media: 1/. Copper wire for telephone (one-to-one communication). 2/. Broadcast for radio & television (one-to-many communication). 3/. Cable for television (one-to-many communication). Most forms of analog content, from news to entertainment, have been distributed over one or more of these methods. Analog technology prior to 1990, was based primarily on the one-to-many distribution system as show in the Table below where information was primarily directed toward individuals from a central point. Table 1-1 Analog Communication Prior to 1990 Prior to 1990, over 99% of businesses and homes had content reach them from any one of the three transmission delivery systems. Only the telephone allowed two-way communication, however. While the other analog systems where reasonably efficient in delivering content, the client could only send feedback, or pay bills, through ordinary postal mail. Obviously, the interactivity level of this system was very low. The technology used in Coaxial Cable TV (CATV) is designed for the transport of video signals. It is comprised of three systems: AM, FM, and Digital. Since the current CATV system with coaxial analog technology is highly limited in bandwidth new technology is necessary for applications requiring higher bandwidth. In the digital system, a CATV network will get better performance than AM/FM systems and ease the migration from coaxial to a fiber based system. Fiber-optics in CATV networks will eliminate most bottlenecks and increase channel capacity for high speed networks. Analog signals are a continuous variable waveform that are information intensive. They require considerable bandwidth and care in transmission. Analog transmissions over phone lines have some inherent problems when used for sending data. Analog signals lose their strength over long distances and often need to be amplified. Signal processing introduces distortions and become amplified raising the possibility of errors. In contrast to the waveform of analog signals, digital signals are transmitted over wire connections by varying the voltage across the line between a high and a low state. Typically, a high voltage level represents a binary digit 1 and a low voltage level represents a binary digit 0. Because they are binary, digital signals are inherently less complex than analog signals and over long distances they are more reliable. If a digital signal needs to be boosted, the signal is simply regenerated rather than being amplified. As a result, digital signals have the following advantages over analog: Superior quality Fewer errors Higher transmission speeds Less complex equipment The excitement over converting analog to digital media is, therefore, easy to explain. It is motivated by cost-effective higher quality digital processing for data, voice and video information. In transitioning from analog to digital technologies however, several significant changes are also profoundly altering broadcast radio and television. The transition introduces fundamental changes from one way broadcast to two-way transmission, and thereby the potential for interactivity, and scheduling of programming to suit the user’s needs. Not only is there an analog to digital shift, but a synchronous to asynchronous shift as well. Television and radio no longer needs to be synchronous and simultaneous. Rather the viewer and listener can control the time of performance. In addition, transmission can be one of three media: copper wire, cable, or wireless. Also, the receiver is transitioning from a dumb device, such as the television, to an intelligent set-top box with significant CPU power. This potentially changes the viewer from a passive to an interactive participant. Today, both analog and digital video technologies coexist in the production and creative part of the process leading up to the point where the video is broadcast. Currently, businesses and homes can receive content from one to six delivery systems: analog: copper wire (telephones), coaxial cable (TV cable), or broadcast (TV or radio); digital: copper wire (modem, DSL), Ethernet modem, or wireless (satellite). At the present time, analog systems still dominate, but digital systems are competing very favorably as infrastructure becomes available. Analog/digital telephone and digital cable allow two-way communication and these technologies are rapidly growing. The digital systems are far more efficient and allow greater interactivity with the client. Competing Technologies The race is on as cable, data, wireless, and telecommunications companies are scrambling to piece together the broadband puzzle and to compete in future markets. The basic infrastructure of copper wire, cable and satellite, as well as, the packaged contents are in place to deliver bigger, richer data files and media types. In special cases, data transmission over the developing computer networks within corporations and between universities, already exist. Groups vying to dominate have each brought different technologies and standards to the table. For the logical convergence of hardware, software and networking technology to occur the interface of theses industries must meet specific inter-operational capabilities and must achieve customer expectations for quality of service. Long distance and local Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOC) telephone companies started with the phone system designed for point-to-point communication, POTS (plain old telephones) and have evolved into a large switched, distributed network, capable of handling millions of simultaneous calls. They track and bill accordingly with an impressive performance record. They have delivered 99.999% reliability with high quality audio. Their technology is now evolving toward DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) modems. AT&T has made significant progress in leading broadband technology development now that it has added the vast cable networks of Tele-Communications Inc. and MediaOne Group to telephone and cellular. Currently, AT&T with about 45% of the market can plug into more U.S. households than any other provider. But other telecommunications companies, such as Sprint and MCI, as well as, the regional Bell operating companies, are also capable of integrating broadband technology with their voice services. Although both routing and architecture of the telephone network has evolved since the AT&T divestiture, the basics remain the same. About 25,000 central offices in the U.S. connect through 1200 intermediate switching nodes, called access tandems. The switching centers are connected by trunks designed to carry multiple voice frequency circuits using frequency division multiplexing (FDM), or synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM), or wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) for optics. The cable companies Time Warner, Comcast, Cox Communications and Charter Communications have 60 million homes wired with coaxial cable primarily one-way cable offering one-to-many broadcast service. Their technology competes through the introduction of cable modems and the upgrade of their infrastructure to support two-way communication. The merger between AOL and Time Warner demonstrates how Internet and content companies are finding ways to converge. Cable television networks currently reaches 200 million homes. On the other hand, satellite television can potentially reach 1 billion homes. These will offer nearly complete coverage of the U.S., digital satellite is also competing. DirecTV, has DirecPC, which can beam data to a PC. Its rival, EchoStar Corp., is working with interactive TV player, TiVo Inc., to deliver video and data service to a set-top box. However, satellite is currently not only a one-way delivery system, but is also the most expensive in the U.S. In regions of the world outside the U.S. where the capital investment in copper wires and cable has yet to be made, satellite may have a better competitive opportunity. The Internet itself doesn’t own its own connections. Internet data traffic passes along the copper, fiber, coaxial cable, and wireless transmission of the other industries as a digital alternative to analog transmissions. The new media is being built to include text, graphics, audio, and video across platforms of television, Internet, cable and wireless industries. The backbone uses wide area communications technology, including satellite, fiber, coaxial cable, copper and wireless. Data servers mix mainframes, workstations, supercomputers, and microcomputers and a diversity of clients populate the end-points of the networks including; conventions PCs, palmtops, PDAs, smart phones, set-top boxes, and TVs. Figure 1-1 Connecting the backbone of the Internet to Your Home Web-television hybrids, such as, WebTV provide opportunities for cross-promotion between television and Internet. Independent developers may take advantage of broadcast-Internet synergy by creating shows to targeted audiences Clearly, the future holds a need for interaction between the TV and the Internet. But will it appear as TV quality video transmitted over the Internet and subsequently displayed on a TV set. Or, alternatively, as URL information embedded within existing broadcast TV set pictures. Perhaps both. Streaming Video Streaming is the ability to play media, such as audio and video, directly over the Internet without downloading the entire file before play begins. Digital encoding is required to convert the analog signal into compressed digital format for transmission and playback. Streaming videos send a constant flow of audio/video information to their audience. While streaming videos may be archived for on-demand viewing, they can also be shown in real-time. Examples include play-by-play sports events, concerts and corporate board meetings. But a streaming video offers more than a simple digitized signal transmitted over the Internet. It offers the ability for interactive audience response and unparalleled form of two-way communication. The interactive streaming video process is referred to as Webcasting. Widespread Web-casting will be impractical, however, until audiences have access rates of a minimum of 100 Kbps or faster. Compression technology can be expected to grow more powerful, significantly reducing bandwidth requirement. By 2006 the best estimates indicate that 40 Million homes will have cable modems and 25 Million DSL connections with access rates of 1.5 Mbps. We shall see in Chapters 5, 6 and 7 how the compression codecs and software standards will competitively change “effective” Internet bandwidth and the quality of delivered video. The resultant video quality at a given bandwidth is highly dependent upon the specific video compressor. The human eye is extremely non-linear and its capabilities are difficult to quantify. The quality of compression, specific video application, typical content, available bandwidth, and user preferences all must be considered when evaluating compressor options. Some optimize for “talking heads” while other optimize for motion. To date, the value of streaming video has been primarily the rebroadcast of TV content and redirected audio from radio broadcasts. The success of these services to compete with traditional analog broadcasts will depend upon the ability of streaming video producers to develop and deliver their content using low cost computers that present a minimal barrier to entry. Small, low cost independent producers will effectively target audiences previously ignored. Streaming videos steadily moving toward the integration of text, graphics, audio, and video with interactive on-line chat will find new audiences. In Chapter 2, we present business models to address business’s video needs. Despite these promising aspects, streaming video is still a long way from providing a satisfactory audio/video experience in comparison to traditional broadcasts. The low data transmission rates are a severe limitation on the quality of streaming videos. While a direct broadcast satellite dish receives data at 2 Mbps, an analog modem is currently limited to 0.05 Mbps. The new cable modems and ADSL are starting to offer speeds competitive with satellite, but they will take time to penetrate globally. Unlike analog radio and television, streaming videos requires a dynamic connection between the computer providing the content to the viewer. Current computer technology limits the viewing audience to up to 50,000. While strategies to overcome this with replicating servers may increase audiences, this too will take effort. The enhancement of data compression reduces the required video data streaming rates to more manageable levels. The technology has only recently reached the point where video can be digitized and compressed to levels which allow reasonable appearance during distribution over digital networks. Advances continue to come, improving look and delivery of video. Calculating Bandwidth Requirements So far we have presented the advantages of digital techology, unfortunately there is one rather large disadvantage - bandwidth limitations. Let’s try some simple math that illustrates the difficulties. Live, or on-demand, streaming video and/or audio is relatively easy to encode. The most difficult part is not the encoding of the files. It is determining what level of data may be transmitted. The following Table contains information that will help with some basic terms and definitions: Why the difference between Kbps and KB/sec? File sizes on a hard drive are measured in Kilobytes (KB). But the data that transferred over a modem is measured in Kilobits per second (Kbps) because it's comparatively slower than a hard drive. In the case of a 28.8Kbps modem the maximum data transfer rate is 2.5 KB/sec even through the calculated rate is 28.8Kbs / 8 bits in a byte = 3.6KB/sec. This is because there is approximately a 30% losses of transmission capabilities lost due to Internet “noise.” This is due to traffic congestion on the web and more than one surfer requesting information on the same server. The following Table 1-4 provides information concerning the characteristics of video files. This includes pixels per frame and frames per file (film size file). We can use the information in Table 1-4 to compare to some simple calculations. We will use the following formula to calculate the approximate size in Megabytes of a digitized video file: (pixel width) x (pixel height) x (color bit depth) x (fps) x (duration in seconds) 8,000,000 (bits / MB) For three minutes of video at 15 frames per second with a color bit depth of 24-bit in a window that is 320x240 pixels, the digitized source file would be approximately 622 Megabytes: (320) x (240) x (24) x (15) x (180) / 8,000,000 = 622 Megabytes We will see in chapter 4, how data compression will significantly reduce this burden. Now that we have our terms defined, let's take the case of a TV station that wants to broadcast their channel live 24hrs a day for a month over the web to a target audience of 56 Kbps modem users. In this case, a live stream generates a 4.25KB/sec since a 56Kbps file transfers at 4.25KB/sec. So how much data would be transferred in a 24 hr period if one stream was constantly being used? ANSWER = 4.25 KB/sec * (number of seconds in a day) * 30 days per month = 11 GB/month So, one stream playing a file encoded for 56 Kbs for 24hrs a day will generate 11 gigabytes in a month. How is this figure useful? This figure becomes important if you can estimate the average number of viewers in a month, then you can estimate the total amount of data that will be transferred from your process. Ultimately the issue becomes one of the need for sufficient backbone infrastructure to carry many broadcasts to many viewers across the networks. For HDTV with a screen size of 1080x1920 and 24-bit color, a bandwidth of 51.8 Mbps is required. This is a serious amount of data flow to route around the Internet to millions of viewers. Transitioning from Narrowband to Broadband In telecommunications, bandwidth refers to data capacity of a channel. For an analog service, the bandwidth is defined as the difference between the highest and lowest frequency within which the medium carries traffic. For example, cabling that carries data between 200 MHz and 300 MHz has a bandwidth of 100MHz. In addition to analog speeds in hertz (Hz) and digital speeds in bits per second (bps), the carrying rate is sometimes categorized as narrowband and broadband. It is useful to relate this to an analogy in which wider pipes carry more water. TV and cable are carried at broadband speeds. However, most telephone and modem data traffic from the central offices to individual homes and businesses are carried at slower narrowband speeds. This is usually referred to as the “last mile” issue. The definitions for narrowband and broadband vary within the industries, but are summarized for our purposes as: Narrowband refers to rates less than 1.5 Mbps Broadband refers to rates at or beyond 1.5 Mbps A major bottleneck of analog services exists between cabling of residents and telephone central offices. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem are gaining in availability. Cable TV companies are investing heavily in converting their cabling from one-way only cable TV to two-way systems for cable modems and telephones. In contrast to the “last-mile” for residential areas, telephones companies are laying fiber cables for digital services from their switches to office buildings where the high-density client base justifies the additional expense. We can appreciate the potential target audience for video by estimating; how fast the “last mile” bandwidth demand is growing. Because installing underground fiber costs more than $20,000 per mile, fiber only makes sense for businesses and network backbones. Not for “last mile” access to homes. Table 1-5 shows the estimated number of users connected at various modem speeds in 1999 and 2006. High-speed consumer connections are now being implemented through cable modems and digital subscriber lines (DSL). Approximately 1.3 million home had cable modems by the end of 1999 in comparison to 300,000 DSL connections primarily to businesses. By 2006, we project 40 million cable modems and 25 million DSL lines. Potentially data at the rate of greater than one megabit per second could be delivered to over 80 per cent of more than 550 million residential telephone lines in the world. Better than one megabit per second can also be delivered over fiber/coax CATV lines configured for two-way transmission, to approximately 10 million out of 200 million total users (though these can be upgraded). In2000, the median bandwidth in the U.S. is less than 56. This is de facto a narrowband environment. But worldwide there is virtually limitless demand for communications as presented by the following growth rates: The speed of computer connections is soaring. The number of connections at greater than 1.5 Mbps is growing at 45% per year in residential areas and at 55% per year in business areas. Because of improving on-line experience, people will stay connected about 20% longer per year. As more remote areas of the world get connected, messages will travel about 15% father a year. The number of people online worldwide in 1999 was 150 million, but the peak Internet load was only 10% and the actual transmission time that data was being transferred, was only 25% of that number. With the average access rate of 44 kbps this indicates an estimate of about 165 Gbps at peak load. In 2006 there will be about 300 million users and about 65 million of these will have broadband (>1.5 Mbps) access. With the addition of increased peak load and increased actual transmission time, this will result in an estimated usage of about 16.5 Tera-bits per second of data processing. It all adds up to a lot of bits. It leads to a demand for total data communications in 2006 of nearly a100-fold increase over 1999. With the number of new users connecting to the Internet growing this fast can the fiber backbone meet this demand? Figure 1-2 answers this question. Figure 1-2 shows the growth in Local Area Networks (LANs) from 1980 to 2000 with some projection into the next decade. In addition, the Internet capacity is shows that over the last few decades and indicates the potential growth rate into the next decade. The jump up in Internet capacity due to Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is a projection of the multiply effect of this new technology. As a result this figure shows that we can expect multi-Tera-bit per second performance from the Internet backbone in the years ahead. This will meet the projected growth in demand. Great! But, what about that “last mile” of copper, coax, and wireless? The “last mile” involves servers, networks, content and transitions from narrow to broadband. Initially, the “last mile” will convert to residential broadband not as fiber optics, but as a network overlaid on existing telephone and cable television wiring. One megabit per second can be delivered to over 80 % or more of 550 million residential telephone lines in the world. It can also be delivered over all fiber/coax CATV lines configured for two-way service. The latter represents a small fraction of the worldwide CATV lines however, requiring only 10 million homes out of 200 million. But upgrade programs will convert the remainder in 5 years. The endgame of the upgrade process may be fiber directly to the customer’s home, but not for the next decade or two. A fiber signal travels coast to coast in 30 ms and human latency (period to achieve recognition) is about 50 milliseconds. Thus fiber is the only technology to deliver viewable HDTV video. However, due to the cost and man-power involved, we’re stuck with the “last mile” remaining copper, coax and wireless for a while yet. The Table 1-7 below summarizes how the five delivery approaches for analog and digital technologies will co-exist for the next few years. In chapter 8, we will present network background on the technologies and standards and revisit this table in more detail. One-way * (FFTH is fiber to the home, FTTC is fiber to the curb, MPEG-2 is a compression standard see chapter 4, ATM is Asynchronous Transfer Mode see chapter 8, TDM is Time Division Multiplexing see chapter 8). Preparing to Converge To be fully prepared to take advantage of the converging technologies, we must ask and answer the right questions. This is not as easy as it might seem. We could ask, “Which company will dominate the broadband data and telecommunication convergence?” But this would be inadequate because the multi-trillion dollar world e-commerce market is too big for any one company to monopolize. We could ask, “Which broadband networks will dominate the Internet backbone?” But this would be inadequate because innovative multiplexing and compression advances will make broadband ubiquitous and subservient to the “last mile” problem. We could ask, “Which transmission means (cable, wireless, or copper) will dominate the “last mile”?” But this would be inadequate because the geographical infrastructure diversity of these technologies throughout the world will dictate different winners in different regions of the world demonstrating this as a “local” problem. Individually, these questions address only part of the convergence puzzle. It is e-commerce’s demand for economic efficiency that will force us to face the important q estion of the telecommunication convergence puzzle. “What are meaningful broadband cross-technology standards?” Without globally accepted standards, hardware and software developers can’t create broad solutions for consumer demand. As a result, we will be concerned throughout this book in pointing out the directions and conflicts that various competing standards are undertaking. Conclusion In this chapter, we presented the background of analog technology’s transition toward digital technology. This chapter provided a calculation that illustrated why digital video data is such a difficult bandwidth problem. It evaluated the rate of change of conversion from narrowband connections to broadband. This rate establishing a critical perspective on the timeline of the demand for Internet video. On the basis of this chapter, you should conclude that: The Internet backbone combination of fiber and optical multiplexing will perform in the multi-Tera-bps range and provide plenty of network bandwidth in the next few years. The “last mile” connectivity will remain twisted pair, wireless, and coax cable for the next few years, but broadband (1.5Mbps) access through cable modems and x-DSL will grow to 40 million users in just a few years. Streaming video was identified as the crossroads of technology convergence. It is the bandwidth crisis of delivering video that will prove decisive in setting global standards and down-selecting competing technologies. The success of streaming video in its most cost-effect and customer satisfying form will define the final technology convergence model into the 21st Century

Excerpts from my books and projects to encourage engagement. Excerpts Writing Porfolio The Henry Gallant Saga Midshipman Henry Gallant in Space Lieutenant Henry Gallant Henry Gallant and the Warrior Commander Gallant Captain Henry Gallant Commandor Henry Gallant Henry Gallant and the Great Ship Rear Admiral Henry Gallant Midshipman Henry Gallant at the Academy Dramatic Novels Youngblood Dark Genius Captain Hawkins Short Stories All Androids Lie Computer Books Connections Thinking on the Web The Semantic Web The Intelligent Wireless Web E-Video Computer Apps Graphic Novels Screenp lay

Excerpt of fourth book in the Henry Gallant Saga, Commander Gallant. Commander Henry Gallant AMAZON Chapter 1 Methane Planet As the warp bubble collapsed, the Warrior popped out on the edge of the Gliese-581star system. The Warrior was Captain Henry Gallant’s first command, the culmination of everything he’d worked for since entering the academy. With a rocket-shaped hull over one hundred meters long, she boasted stealth technology, a sub-light antimatter engine, and an FTL dark-matter drive. Gallant gawked. “What an awesome sight.” The busy bridge crew stole their eyes away from their instrument panels long enough to gaze in amazement at the Titan civilization. The many ships traveling between planets were remarkable, but the energy readings of the densely populated planets were off the charts. From his command chair, Gallant focused on the home of his alien enemy. The star was an M-class red dwarf—smaller, cooler, and less massive than Sol, at about twenty light-years from Earth. “Sir,” said the astrogator, “we’re three light-days from the sun. Five planets are visible.” “It’s like the solar system,” marveled Midshipman Stedman, an eager but green officer. His slight build and round, boyish face often seemed to get lost amid the bustle of the more experienced crew. “If you don’t notice that the sun is ruby instead of amber and that there are only five planets,” chided Chief Howard. The oldest member of the crew, he was a seasoned veteran with a slight potbelly. He wore his immaculate uniform with pride. Every ribbon, insignia, and star on his left breast had a long and glorious story. He was only too glad to retell the stories—with appropriate embellishments—over a whiskey, preferably Jack Daniels. The astrogator said, “Only two planets are within the liquid methane zone. But some of the asteroids and moons may have been methane-formed.” “Wow, the system is full of mining colonies, military bases, and communications satellites. The spaceship traffic is amazing. There must be many thousands of ships,” said Stedman. The astrogator reported, “Scans on the second and third planets show billions of beings. The second planet has the greatest energy density. I’ll bet that’s their planet of origin.” “Quite likely,” acknowledged Gallant, his curiosity aroused. “An imposing presence, Skipper,” said Roberts. Young and garrulous, Roberts had steady nerves and sound professional judgment. He was of average height with brown hair, a lean, smooth face, and a sturdy body. Gallant had come to trust him as a stalwart friend—something one only discovers during a crisis. That moment had come several months earlier when Roberts put his career and his life on the line for Gallant. “It has one large moon,” added Chief Howard. Gliese-Beta was a majestic ringed planet wrapped in a dense hydrocarbon nitrogen-rich atmosphere. It was opaque to blue light but transparent to red and infrared. The red dwarf's infrared warmed the planet and made it habitable for methane lifeforms. Gliese-Gamma was similar. The astrogator continued, “The next two planets are gas giants with several moons. Gliese-Delta is composed of hydrogen and helium with volcanic methane moons, much like our Neptune. Gliese-Epsilon is a low-mass planet with a climate model like a runaway greenhouse effect—analogous to our Venus.” “That’s interesting,” said Roberts. Encouraged, the astrogator concluded his report, “The system includes a disk-shaped asteroid field.” The Warrior used its radars and telescopes to plot the planets’ orbits. The CIC team computed the course of nearby contacts. The Warrior’s emission spectrum was controlled in stealth mode. “What’s your assessment of their military strength?” asked Gallant. The CIC team listed the large and small warships, followed by planetary defenses. They added an estimate of the traffic flow. It was a long list. OOD said, “Here is the compiled reported, sir.” “Very well,” acknowledged Gallant as he scanned the tablet. The sub-light engines drove the ship onward into the heart of the system. Calculating their flight path, the astrogator reported, “We’ll reach the asteroids in about forty-eight hours, sir.” Gallant tapped the screen to call up the AI settings for plot control and touched the destination. He ordered a deep-space probe sent toward the largest asteroids. “It’ll take several hours to start transmitting, sir.” Gallant said, “Once we get a base established, we can go deeper into their system. I’m interested in seeing how their home planet differs from our solar system. We need to learn about their society and leadership structure.” Roberts asked, “Skipper, we’ve always called them Titans, but what do they call themselves?” Gallant said, “I can’t replicate their name in our language. As autistic savants, their communication is different from our speech. We’ll continue to call them Titans.” The CIC team reported, “Our initial assessment shows that Gliese-Beta has a diverse topology and climate. It’s ecologically rich with many species. Extensive methane oceans and landmasses have abundant soil and temperature conditions. It can support a wide variety of methane-breathing lifeforms.” Roberts said, “It’s so different from our water-rich Earth.” “Earth is mostly water,” said Gallant. “The oceans provide us with fish to eat, water vapor to fill our skies with clouds, rain to nurture our crops, and water for us to drink. Our metabolism and food cycle are water-based, and we ourselves are 97 percent water. For us, water is life.” “How does this methane world sustain the Titans?” asked Roberts Gallant said, “The temperature variations provide methane in all three phases: gas, liquid, and solid. Methane rivers freeze at high latitudes to form polar sheets. The methane cycle is a complex molecular soup. It is formed from reactions when the ultraviolet radiation from the sun strikes the methane. Their methane life forms are comparable to our oxygen-based life cycle. And just as methane is a poison to us, oxygen is toxic to them.” Roberts asked, “Are they autistic savants because of the methane-based chemistry?” “That’s one of the things we’re here to learn. Our first task is to establish a base,” said Gallant. “From that hideout, the Warrior can recharge her stealth battery and remain safe between operations.” Maintaining stealth mode, the Warrior approached the outer edge of the asteroid belt. She conducted a spiral search to map the interrelated defenses. The crew looked for an asteroid large enough to hide the ship. Gallant and the XO combed through the CIC data to check for potential locations. “How about here, sir?” asked one of the analysts, pointing to a cluster near the outer perimeter of the field. The asteroid belt included many asymmetrical rocky bodies. Three smaller clusters skirted the outer edge. Some asteroids were more than one kilometer wide. “Yes, that might do,” said Gallant. “It’s large enough to block radar detection and shield us from view while we’re recharging. We’ll call this base Alamo." Gallant ordered a two-man team to construct a relay station on the asteroid. He left one of the Warrior’s remote-controlled drones on the surface along with a supply depot. Once Alamo was established, he settled the Warrior into orbit behind the rocks to recharge her stealth batteries. The next day, they reconnoitered the fifth planet and discovered a communication junction box. Moving deeper into Titan territory, they caught a bird’s-eye view of the alien’s home planet. They saw several orbiting shipyards and space stations. The Warrior collected information about the Titan fleet and civilization. The bridge crew was surprised at the incredible infrastructure the aliens had developed. Operating in such a populated environment was a challenge, but the cloaking technology allowed the Warrior to remain undetected. What followed were busy days as the Warrior peered into the inner workings of the Titan system. The crew compiled detailed lists of warships and their deposition, as well as their refueling and patrolling pattern. They learned shipping traffic patterns, monitored the industrial capacity, and accumulated population statistics. There were over twenty billion inhabitants. The Titans had built their main military headquarters on the third planet. It had a layered defense with satellites, minefields, and overlapping fortresses. A display showed fluctuating energy emissions for their industry. After two weeks of collecting information, Roberts approached Gallant’s command chair. He asked, “Captain, can you give us your game plan going forward?” Gallant recalled Admiral Collingsworth’s orders detailing their hazardous mission. All of which required his stealth ship and crew to be at peak operational and battle readiness. He said, “Yes. It’s time to fill you in. We’ve collected a lot of info, but scouting isn’t our sole mission. I intend to do more. Much more.” The bridge crew leaned closer, eager to drink in every tidbit of juicy news. He said, “We are finally ready to engage in asymmetric warfare. We will penetrate the Titan communication network to learn about their military deployment.” He paused for dramatic effect as everyone drew in a deep breath. “And we will raid commercial shipping to throw their civilian population into turmoil.” A buzz of excitement filled the bridge. “That’s a tall order, Skipper,” said Roberts. “Yes, it is.” Gallant asked, “Are you up for it?” “Can do, sir!” said Roberts. “Can do, sir!” roared the bridge crew. Commander Julie Ann McCall stepped out of CIC and onto the bridge. She walked straight to Gallant and grabbed his arm. She said, “I must speak to you immediately.” McCall was not a line officer. She was a product of genetic engineering who had inherited tendencies of the most diabolical kind, which made her a talented Solar Intelligence Agency (SIA) operative. Her considerable skills in manipulation and deception had fostered her brilliant career. What she lacked in kindness and empathy, she more than made up for in intellect, guile, and allure. She was astonishingly efficient at analyzing an opponent’s flaws. Some who had felt her cold-blooded sting labeled her a sociopath who would do anything to achieve her goals. Gallant’s long and checkered relationship with her remained a riddle to him. Now he gazed into her blazing eyes, and then he looked down at her hand on his arm. She pulled her hand away but repeated, “I need to speak with you privately.” The commotion on the bridge died down and the two senior officers became the focus of attention. Gallant rose from his command chair, and said, “Commander, please come with me.” All eyes on the bridge followed the pair as they left.

Excerpt from the sixth book in the Henry Gallant Saga, Commodore Henry Gallant. Commodore Henry Gallant AMAZON Chapter 1 Unidentified Flying Object Lieutenant Rob Ryan was bored. He hated the mundane tasks of being a squadron leader. He liked ‘fast’—the faster, the better. But that wasn’t happening today as he cruised over Earth in his Viper. He was stuck with the tedious job of training his new wingman, Glenn Holman, in strafing maneuvers against the Antarctic target range. As he executed a simple wingover in his starfighter, he wa s about to comment on the poor performance of his novice companion when out of nowhere, the world changed, shifting with shocking suddenness. That’s not possible! He instinctively flung an arm across his face to ward off the seemingly endless wall of steel that had materialized in front of him. I must be hallucinating! Heart-throbbing fear gripped him. But there is something delicious about fear. It starts with bitter panic and grows into sour excitement—until, at last, comes sweet courage. Ryan pulled his arm down, tightened his grip on the thruster, and yelled, “Hard to port! Max thrust! Flip gyros!” Over the next several seconds, he concentrated on avoiding a collision with the mountain of metal. In the first second, he felt the chest-crushing weight of 14 g’s as his Viper began the pivot. In the next second, he fought down the blackness of his vision, narrowing into a tunnel as 20 g’s tested the limitations of his pressure suit. By the third second, he felt as if he was being squashed like a ripe tomato—right before he blacked out. Several seconds later, he came to, blinking against the glare of the sun. Even as he aimed his ship toward it, he heard Holman gasp, “I can’t . . . make it . . .” Almost immediately, Ryan saw the brilliant red-white explosion of Holman’s Viper as it went splat against the steel wall. He sighed with relief when he saw an escape pod spiral toward Earth. *** The July blizzard howled across the high plateau of the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Antarctic Station, leaving a record snowfall of crystalline ice in its wake, and blustering so hard that the Earth defense sensor arrays were blanketed under the full fury of the whiteout. So powerful was the blizzard that sharp flecks of ice pierced the multilayered protective gear of the technician sent to investigate some minor static interference. As the man crawled toward the besieged sensors, his hands lost feeling despite the well-insulated flex-gloves. A large scavenger Skuas bird dive-bombed him, causing him to grab hold of the lifeline tether to keep from falling off the sheer rock cliff. “Damn!” “What’s wrong?” Against the howling of the wind, he could barely hear the question. During the six-month southern hemisphere ‘night,’ the wind blew at 160 km/h, and the temperature dropped to minus 89 °C. Despite the harsh conditions, the dry atmosphere and extended darkness made the station the Earth’s best location for astronomical observations. It had every conceivable type of sensor from microwave telescopes to neutrino detectors. The sensors were so accurate and dependable that the people of Earth rested reassured of their absolute safety. The man gripped the taut cable as he spoke into the mic, “Why do I always get the crap jobs?” “Just do it. And better hurry. Something big is brewing.” Inside the station’s geodesic dome, a sensor operator screamed, “Contact! Contact over Melbourne. It’s massive!” The duty officer came over to the operator’s station. “What’s the problem?” The operator pointed, his finger trembling in shock at the image that filled his screen. Flabbergasted, the duty officer asked, “Where did that come from? No unidentified contacts have been reported!” “It just popped up out of nowhere.” “That’s impossible.” “I’m telling you. Everything was normal, nothing but standard traffic patterns, and then WHAM! There it was.” “Have you run a diagnostic on your equipment?” “Look at the other sensors. They all show the same thing. We have a man outside checking some minor glitches, but nothing that would explain this.” “It isn’t a colossal malfunction? Do you think this is a bona fide contact?” “Yes, sir!” In the stunned silence, the senior chief operator said, “Designate contact as Tango 101, in geosynchronous orbit over Melbourne.” Still unable to grasp the situation, the duty officer asked again, “Why didn’t you spot this earlier?” “I’m telling you; it wasn’t there before. It came out of nowhere. As if it dropped out of cloak.” The dark eyes of the duty officer met the senior chief’s gaze. “That’s impossible. Even in a blizzard, our active sensors can penetrate any cloaking device within a million kilometers of Earth.” As he shook his head, the chief’s white hair fell across his grizzled face, but his eyes stayed steady. “Until now.” The officer asked, “What type of craft is it?” “Nothing in our databases even comes close. Visual images are starting to come in now. Man, it’s the strangest thing I’ve ever seen.” The officer’s eyes bugged out. “Oh, my Gawd! That’s incredible. It’s enormous. What the hell is it?” His hand smacked the red alert button, and his voice echoed over the base-wide intercom. “Activate planet defenses. Scramble standby fighters.” A second later, he said into the emergency radio, “Put me through to Admiral Devens, immediately.” When Admiral Devens responded, the duty officer said, “We have an unidentified flying object over the capital.” “Notify all missile and laser batteries to target the contact, but hold fire until further notice,” said the admiral, unruffled. “Have fighter command scramble all fighters and intercept the UFO.” *** “Fighter command, this is Lieutenant Ryan flying Constellation’s Viper 607. I have Tango 101 in sight.” Like a minnow swimming next to a blue whale, Ryan flew alongside the alien craft examining its features. He said, “Tango 101 is a monster ship that looks like a giant squid. It has an ellipsoid body thirty kilometers in diameter with protruding spikes seventy kilometers long. This Great Ship is beyond the combined resources of all the planets.” “Is it broadcasting?” asked the command center. “Negative, according to my sensors. It has not responded to radio communications, and I can detect no emissions at all, hostile or otherwise.” “Shadow it, but do not engage.” *** Twelve hours later, President Kent addressed the nation. “My fellow citizens, what you have heard is true. We have detected an alien vessel over Earth, but there is no immediate cause for alarm. Planetary defenses are on full alert. Our space fleet and fighters have surrounded the unknown spaceship. We do not know who these beings are, but they are not our Titan enemy. And though victory against that enemy may still seem a long way off, we are prepared to face any challenge they set against us. This new arrival has so far taken no hostile action, and our hope is that they will prove to be a benefactor rather than an adversary. “So, we must be patient until our visitor decides to speak. Until then, I am certain that you will all remain as brave and resolute as our proud space navy that stands guard protecting us at this moment.” Over the next several hours, news stations maintained uninterrupted coverage around the world. Opinions were divided over accepting the president’s optimism. Some listened to the vitriolic counterargument made by presidential candidate Gerome Neumann. He advised swift and total annihilation of the aliens who had violated Earth’s space. When it seemed that the tension couldn’t get any greater, an astounding event occurred. A shuttlecraft departed the Great Ship and landed at the Melbourne spaceport.

Excerpt of the book Midshipman Henry Gallant in Space. Midshipman Henry Gallant in Space AMAZON Joining the Fleet 1 A massive solar flare roared across the sun, crackling every display console in the tiny spacecraft. “No need to worry, young man. We’re almost there,” said the aged pilot. “I’m not concerned about the storm,” said newly commissioned Midshipman Henry Gallant. Eagerly, he shifted in his seat to get a better view of the massive battlecruiser Repulse that would be his home for the next two years. She was a magnificent fighting machine, a powerful beast in orbit around Jupiter. The pilot maneuvered to minimize the effects of the x-ray and gamma radiation until the craft slid into the cold black shadow of the Repulse. Gallant could hardly contain his delight as the tiny ship quivered in the grip of the warship’s tractors. By the time the docking hatch finally slid open, Gallant was waiting impatiently for his first glimpse inside the warship. He hurried to the bridge. The officer of the watch stood next to the empty captain’s chair, surrounded by a dizzying array of displays and virtual readouts. The officer rested his hand on the panel that concealed the Artificial Intelligence (AI) tactical analyzer. “Midshipman Henry Gallant, reporting aboard, sir.” Drawing his gangly seventeen-year-old figure to its full height, he gave a snappy salute. He tugged at his uniform jacket to pull the buttons into proper alignment. “Welcome aboard, Mr. Gallant. I’m Lieutenant Mather.” Mather was of average height, barrel-chested with angular facial features and a stoic look. Beyond a glance, he showed little interest in the new arrival. “Give me your comm pin.” Gallant handed over his pin, Mather made several quick selections on a touch screen, then swiped it past the chip reader. While his ID loaded into the ship’s computer, Gallant took the opportunity to look around. The semicircular compartment, though spacious, bristled with displays, control panels, and analysis stations. From his academy training, he could guess most of the functions. There were communications, radar, weapons, and astrogation, plus a few he couldn’t identify. Several of the positions were vacant operating automatically. Gallant’s fingers twitched, eager to be a part of the bridge’s efficient operation. A huge view screen dominating the compartment displayed Jupiter. An orbiting space station was visible against the vastness of the gas giant. He marveled at the spectacle. “Junior officer authorization verified. The ID pin has been updated with Repulse’s access codes,” a computer’s voice announced from a nearby speaker. Its neutral, disinterested tone reminded Gallant of a rather cold and distant teacher he had had in basic math years ago. ”Did you bring your gear aboard?” asked Mather. “My duffle bag is at the docking port, sir.” The aged pilot had helped Gallant carry his gear from the shuttlecraft onto Repulse. Then, after a cheery smile and a friendly, “Good luck,” he climbed back in his shuttle and left. Having no family of his own, Gallant had found some faint comfort in the good wishes. ”I’ll have your gear sent to your quarters. But, for now, you had better see the captain,” said Mather, raising an eyebrow at Gallant. “Aye aye, sir,” said Gallant. Mather turned to one of the bridge’s junior officers, a young woman. She wore a single thin gold stripe on her blouse sleeve, indicating her rank as Midshipman First Class, one-year senior to Gallant. He ordered, “Midshipman Mitchel, take Mr. Gallant to the captain’s cabin.” As they left the bridge, Mitchel said, “Henry Gallant . . . I remember you from the academy. I’m surprised you’re still in uniform.” Gallant gritted his teeth, as he had done many times before when confronted with what he perceived as overt disapproval. He didn’t recognize her, but he couldn’t help but observe that she was an attractive brunette with a trim figure. “Will you be training as a fighter pilot or missile weapons officer?” she asked. “I had basic fighter training on Mars and will be taking advanced pilot training with Repulse’s Squadron 111.” “I’m a qualified second-seat astrogator in 111. Most likely, we’ll wind up flying together at some point.” Because her demeanor revealed nothing about whether that idea repelled or appealed to her, Gallant nodded. When they reached the captain’s cabin, she said, “I’m Kelsey, by the way.” Then, as she turned to leave, she added as an afterthought, “Good luck.” Gallant watched her walk away. He wondered if her remark was sincere. *** Gallant stood like a statue inside the open hatch. Captain Kenneth Caine was seated with his back to him, reviewing Gallant’s military record, which was displayed on a computer screen. Clean-shaven with close-cropped graying hair, Caine was solidly built with square shoulders and a craggy face. His well-tailored uniform hugged his robust frame, accentuating his military bearing. From his brief time onboard, Gallant had already realized that Repulse was an orderly ship, and that Kenneth Caine was an orderly captain. Precision and discipline were expected. He was suddenly conscious that his tangled brown hair was longer than regulations allowed. The cabin was sparsely furnished in a traditional, starkly military fashion. A desk in one well-lit corner held the single personal item in the room: a photo of an attractive, mature woman with a pleasant smile. The sadness in her eyes hinted at the difficult bargain she had made as the lonely wife of a dedicated space officer. While the captain flipped through the personnel folder, Gallant’s gaze wandered to the compartment’s viewscreen. The solar flare had subsided, leaving gigantic colorful Jupiter filling most of the view. “At ease, Mr. Gallant,” said Caine, finally turning to face the newcomer. “Welcome aboard the Repulse.” Gallant relaxed his stance and said in a strong, clear voice, “Thank you, sir.” Caine looked him up and down and scrunched his face before asking, “What do you know of this ship’s mission, Mr. Gallant?” “As the flagship of the Jupiter Fleet, Repulse must prevent alien encroachment along the frontier, sir,” ventured Gallant. “Quite right, as far as that goes. But you’ll find, Mr. Gallant, that this task is more nuanced and layered than may be apparent. As a United Planets officer, you must find shades of meaning that can affect your performance. What would you surmise is behind this frontier watch?” The captain’s brisk voice demanded a resolute answer. Gallant spoke guardedly at first, but as his confidence grew, his voice gained assurance. “Well, sir, UP knows little about the aliens’ origins or intentions. They appear to have bases on the satellites of the outer planets. Clashes with their scout ships have proven troublesome, and Fleet Command wants to gather more intelligence. With so little known about alien technology, it isn’t easy to assess the best way to repel it. Still, this fleet must forestall an invasion of Earth by preventing the aliens from gaining a foothold in this sector.” ”And what would you say will be essential in achieving victory in battle?” Leaning forward with his hands behind him to balance out his jutting jaw, Gallant said with fierce intensity, “Surprise, sir! I assume that is why you’ve dispersed most of the fleet. So you can search the widest possible region of space for the first signs of significant alien activity.” Caine examined the young man again as if seeing him for the first time. “Good. We will not be the ones surprised. We will be prepared. You can appreciate how important it is that Repulse performs well.” Then, he added, “And I will allow nothing, and no one, to interfere with our mission.” “Yes, sir,” said Gallant, feeling the sting from the pointed comment. “Tell me, Mr. Gallant,” said the captain, shifting in his chair to find a more comfortable position, “why did you apply to the academy?” Gallant’s voice swelled with passion. “For as long as I can remember, I’ve wanted to pilot spaceships and explore the unknown, sir.” ”You are undoubtedly aware that many people wanted your hide raised up the flagpole.” Caine’s eyebrow twitched. “Although your progress for two academic years at the academy was respectable, many doubt that a Natural can compete in the fleet. Today, your real qualification for advancement is your double helix.” Caine continued, “Frankly, I’m astonished you have gotten this far without the advantages of genetic engineering. You’re a bit of a mystery that has yet to unfold.” Gallant didn’t like being referred to as a mystery, but he had his own uncertainty about how his future might evolve. Caine said, “Now that you are commissioned, you must serve a two-year deployment on Repulse. Then, if you complete all your qualifications and receive strong ranking marks, you may be recommended for promotion to ensign.” He gave a weak smile and added. “Learn your duties, obey orders, and you will have nothing to fear.” Caine searched Gallant’s face. “Well, nothing to say for yourself?” Gallant thrust his chin out and said, “I am prepared to do my duty to the best of my ability, sir!” “It is exactly ‘the best of your ability’ that is in question, young man,” responded Caine.

An excerpt from the non-fiction technology book Thinking on the Web. Thinking on the Web AMAZON Chapter 2 Gödel: What is Decidable? In the last chapter, we suggested that small wireless devices connected to an intelligent Web could produce ubiquitous computing and empower the Information Revolution. In the future, Semantic Web architecture is designed to add some intelligence to the Web through machine processing capabilities. For the Semantic Web to succeed the expressive power of the logic added to its mark-up languages must be balanced against the resulting computational complexit y. Therefore, it is important to evaluate both the expressive characteristics of logic languages, as well as, their inherit limitations. In fact, some options for Web logic include solutions that may not be solvable through rational argument. In particular, the work of Kurt Gödel identified the concept of undecidability where the truth or falsity of some statements may not be determined. In this chapter, we review some of the basic principles of logic and related them to the suitability for Web applications. First, we review the basic concept of logic, and discuss various characteristics and limitations of logic analysis. We introduce First Order Logics (FOL) and its subsets, such as Descriptive Logic and Horn Logic which offer attractive characteristics for Web applications. These languages set the parameters for how expressive Web markup languages can become. Second, we investigate how logic conflicts and limitations in computer programming and Artificial Intelligence (AI) have been handled in closed environments to date. We consider how errors in logic contribute to significant ‘bugs’ that lead to crashed computer programs. Third, we review how Web architecture is used to partition the delivery of business logic from the user interface. The Web architecture keeps the logic restricted to executable code residing on the server and delivers user-interface presentations residing within the markup languages traveling over the Web. The Semantic Web changes this partitioned arrangement. Finally, we discuss the implications of using logic in markup languages on the Semantic Web. Philosophical and Mathematical Logic Aristotle described man as a “rational animal” and established the study of logic beginning with the process of codifying syllogisms. A syllogism is a kind of argument in which there are three propositions, two of them premises, one a conclusion. Aristotle was the first to create a logic system which allowed predicates and subjects to be represented by letters or symbols. His logic form allowed one to substitute for subjects and predicates with letters (variables). For example: If A is predicated of all B, and B is predicated of all C, then A is predicated of all C. By predicated, Aristotle means B belongs to A, or all B's are A's. For instance, we can substitute subjects and predicates into this syllogism to get: If all humans (B's) are mortal (A), and all Greeks (C's) are humans (B's), then all Greeks (C's) are mortal (A). Today, Aristotle's system is mostly seen as of historical value. Subsequently, other philosophers and mathematicians such as Leibniz developed methods to represent logic and reasoning as a series of mechanical and symbolic tasks. They were followed by logicians who developed mechanical rules to carry out logical deductions. In logic, as in grammar, a subject is what we make an assertion about, and a predicate is what we assert about the subject. Today, logic is considered to be the primary reasoning mechanism for solving problems. Logic allows us to sets up systems and criteria for distinguishing acceptable arguments from unacceptable arguments. The structure of arguments is based upon formal relations between the newly produced assertions and the previous ones. Through argument we can then express inferences. Inferences are the processes where new assertions may be produced from existing ones. When relationships are independent of the assertions themselves we call them ‘formal’. Through these processes, logic provides a mechanism for the extension of knowledge. As a result, logic provides prescriptions for reasoning by machines, as well as, by people. Traditionally, logic has been studied as a branch of philosophy. However, since the mid-1800’s logic has been commonly studied as a branch of mathematics and more recently as a branch of computer science. The scope of logic can therefore be extended to include reasoning using probability and causality. In addition, logic includes the study of structures of fallacious arguments and paradoxes. By logic then, we mean the study and application of the principles of reasoning, and the relationships between statements, concepts or propositions. Logic incorporates both the methods of reasoning and the validity of the results. In common language, we refer to logic in several ways; logic can be considered as a framework or system of reasoning, a particular mode or process of reasoning, or the guiding principles of a field or discipline. We also use the term "logical" to describe a reasoned approach to solve a problem or get to a decision, as opposed to the alternative "emotional" approaches to react or respond to a situation. As logic has developed, its scope has splintered int o many distinctive branches. These distinctions serve to formalize different forms of logic as a science. The distinctions between the various branches of logic lead to their limitations and expressive capabilities which are central issues to designing the Semantic Web languages. The following sections identify some of the more important distinctions. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning Originally, logic consisted only of deductive reasoning which was concerned with a premise and a resultant deduction. However, it is important to note that inductive reasoning – the study of deriving a reliable generalization from observations – has also been included in the study of logic. Correspondingly, we must distinguish between deductive validity and inductive validity. The notion of deductive validity can be rigorously stated for systems of formal logic in terms of the well-understood notions of semantics. An inference is deductively valid if and only if there is no possible situation in which all the premises are true and the conclusion false. Inductive validity on the other hand requires us to define a reliable generalization of some set of observations. The task of providing this definition may be approached in various ways, some of which use mathematical models of probability. Paradox A paradox is an apparently true statement that seems to lead to a contradiction or to a situation that defies intuition. Typically, either the statements in question do not really imply the contradiction; or the puzzling result is not really a contradiction; or the premises themselves are not all really true (or, cannot all be true together). The recognition of ambiguities, equivocations, and unstated assumptions underlying known paradoxes has often led to significant advances in science, philosophy and mathematics. Formal and Informal Logic Formal logic (sometimes called ‘symbolic logic’) attempts to capture the nature of logical truth and inference in formal systems. This consists of a formal language, a set of rules of derivation (often called ‘rules of inference’), and sometimes a set of axioms. The formal language consists of a set of discrete symbols, a syntax (i.e., the rules for the construction of a statement), and a semantics (i.e., the relationship between symbols or groups of symbols and their meanings). Expressions in formal logic are often called ‘formulas.’ The rules of derivation and potential axioms then operate with the language to specify a set of theorems, which are formulas that are either basic axioms or true statements that are derivable using the axioms and rules of derivation. In the case of formal logic systems, the theorems are often interpretable as expressing logical truths (called tautologies). Formal logic encompasses a wide variety of logic systems. For instance, propositional logic and predicate logic are kinds of formal logic, as well as temporal logic, modal logic, Hoare logic and the calculus of constructions. Higher-order logics are logical systems based on a hierarchy of types. For example, Hoare logic is a formal system developed by the British computer scientist C. A. R. Hoare. The purpose of the system is to provide a set of logical rules in order to reason about the correctness of computer programs with the rigor of mathematical logic. The purpose of such a system is to provide a set of logical rules by which to reason about the correctness of computer programs with the rigor of mathematical logic. The central feature of Hoare logic is the Hoare triple. A triple describes how the execution of a piece of code changes the state of the computation. A Hoare triple is of the form: {P} C {Q} where P and Q are assertions and C is a command. P is called the precondition and Q the post-condition. Assertions are formulas in predicate logic. An interpretation of such a triple is: Whenever P holds of the state before the execution of C, then Q will hold afterwards. Alternatively, informal logic is the study of logic that is used in natural language arguments. Informal logic is complicated by the fact that it may be very hard to extract the formal logical structure embedded in an argument. Informal logic is also more difficult because the semantics of natural language assertions is much more complicated than the semantics of formal logical systems. Mathematical Logic Mathematical logic really refers to two distinct areas of research: the first is the application of the techniques of formal logic to mathematics and mathematical reasoning, and the second, the application of mathematical techniques to the representation and analysis of formal logic. The boldest attempt to apply logic to mathematics was pioneered by philosopher-logician Bertrand Russell. His idea was that mathematical theories were logical tautologies, and his program was to show this by means to a reduction of mathematics to logic. The various attempts to carry this out met with a series of failures, such as Russell's Paradox, and the defeat of Hilbert's Program by Gödel's incompleteness theorems (which we shall describe shortly). Russell's paradox represents either of two interrelated logical contradictions. The first is a contradiction arising in the logic of sets or classes. Some sets can be members of themselves, while others can not. The set of all sets is itself a set, and so it seems to be a member of itself. The null or empty set, however, must not be a member of itself. However, suppose that we can form a set of all sets that, like the null set, are not included in themselves. The paradox arises from asking the question of whether this set is a member of itself. It is, if and only if, it is not! The second form is a contradiction involving properties. Some properties seem to apply to themselves, while others do not. The property of being a property is itself a property, while the property of being a table is not, itself, a table. Hilbert's Program was developed in the early 1920s, by German mathematician David Hilbert. It called for a formalization of all of mathematics in axiomatic form, together with a proof that this axiomatization of mathematics is consistent. The consistency proof itself was to be carried out using only what Hilbert called ‘finitary’ methods. The special epistemological character of this type of reasoning yielded the required justification of classical mathematics. It was also a great influence on Kurt Gödel, whose work on the incompleteness theorems was motivated by Hilbert's Program. In spite of the fact that Gödel's work is generally taken to prove that Hilbert's Program cannot be carried out, Hilbert's Program has nevertheless continued to be influential in the philosophy of mathematics, and work on Revitalized Hilbert Programs has been central to the development of proof theory. Both the statement of Hilbert's Program and its refutation by Gödel depended upon their work establishing the second area of mathematical logic, the application of mathematics to logic in the form of proof theory. Despite the negative nature of Gödel's incompleteness theorems, a result in model theory can be understood as showing how close logics came to being true: every rigorously defined mathematical theory can be exactly captured by a First-Order Logical (FOL) theory. Thus it is apparent that the two areas of mathematical logic are complementary. Logic is extensively applied in the fields of artificial intelligence and computer science. These fields provide a rich source of problems in formal logic. In the 1950s and 60s, researchers predicted that when human knowledge could be expressed using logic with mathematical notation, it would be possible to create a machine that reasons, or produces artificial intelligence. This turned out to be more difficult than expected because of the complexity of human reasoning. In logic programming, a program consists of a set of axioms and rules. In symbolic logic and mathematical logic, proofs by humans can be computer-assisted. Using automated theorem proving, machines can find and check proofs, as well as work with proofs too lengthy to be written out by hand. However, the computation complexity of carrying out automated theorem proving is a serious limitation. It is a limitation that we will find in subsequent chapters significantly impacts the Semantic Web. Decidability In the 1930s, the mathematical logician, Kurt Gödel shook the world of mathematics when he established that, in certain important mathematical domains, there are problems that cannot be solved or propositions that cannot be proved, or disproved, and are therefore undecidable. Whether a certain statement of first order logic is provable as a theorem is one example; and whether a polynomial equation in several variables has integer solutions is another. While humans solve problems in these domains all the time, it is not certain that arbitrary problems in these domains can always be solved. This is relevant for artificial intelligence since it is important to establish the boundaries for a problem’s solution. Kurt Gödel Kurt Gödel (shown Figure 2-1) was born April 28, 1906 in Brünn, Austria-Hungary (now Brno, Czech Republic). He had rheumatic fever when he was six years old and his health became a chronic concern over his lifetime. Kurt entered the University of Vienna in 1923 where he was influenced by the lectures of Wilhelm Furtwängler. Furtwängler was an outstanding mathematician and teacher, but in addition he was paralyzed from the neck down, and this forced him to lecture from a wheel chair with an assistant to write on the board. This made a big impression on Gödel who was very conscious of his own health. As an undergraduate Gödel studied Russell's book Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy. He completed his doctoral dissertation under Hans Hahn in 1929. His thesis proved the completeness of the first order functional calculus. He subsequently became a member of the faculty of the University of Vienna, where he belonged to the school of logical positivism until 1938. Gödel is best known for his 1931 proof of the "Incompleteness Theorems." He proved fundamental results about axiomatic systems showing that in any axiomatic mathematical system there are propositions that cannot be proved or disproved within the axioms of the system. In particular, the consistency of the axioms cannot be proved. This ended a hundred years of attempts to establish axioms and axiom-based logic systems which would put the whole of mathematics on this basis. One major attempt had been by Bertrand Russell with Principia Mathematica (1910-13). Another was Hilbert's formalism which was dealt a severe blow by Gödel's results. The theorem did not destroy the fundamental idea of formalism, but it did demonstrate that any system would have to be more comprehensive than that envisaged by Hilbert. One consequence of Gödel's results implied that a computer can never be programmed to answer all mathematical questions. In 1935, Gödel proved important results on the consistency of the axiom of choice with the other axioms of set theory. He visited Göttingen in the summer of 1938, lecturing there on his set theory research and returned to Vienna to marry Adele Porkert in 1938. After settling in the United States, Gödel again produced work of the greatest importance. His “Consistency of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum-hypothesis with the axioms of set theory” (1940) is a classic of modern mathematics. In this he proved that if an axiomatic system of set theory of the type proposed by Russell and Whitehead in Principia Mathematica is consistent, then it will remain so when the axiom of choice and the generalized continuum-hypothesis are added to the system. This did not prove that these axioms were independent of the other axioms of set theory, but when this was finally established by Cohen in 1963 he used the ideas of Gödel. Gödel held a chair at Princeton from 1953 until his death in 1978. Propositional Logic Propositional logic (or calculus) is a branch of symbolic logic dealing with propositions as units and with the combinations and connectives that relate them. It can be defined as the branch of symbolic logic that deals with the relationships formed between propositions by connectives such as compounds and connectives shown below: Symbols Statement Connectives p q "either p is true, or q is true, or both" disjunction p · q "both p and q are true" conjunction p q "if p is true, then q is true" implication p q "p and q are either both true or both false" equivalence A ‘truth table’ is a complete list of the possible truth values of a statement. We use "T" to mean "true", and "F" to mean "false" (or "1" and "0" respectively). Truth tables are adequate to test validity, tautology, contradiction, contingency, consistency, and equivalence. This is important because truth tables are a mechanical application of the rules. Propositional calculus is a formal system for deduction whose atomic formulas are propositional variables. In propositional calculus, the language consists of propositional variables (or placeholders) and sentential operators (or connectives). A well-formed formula is any atomic formula or a formula built up from sentential operators. First-Order Logic (FOL) First-Order Logic (FOL), also known as first-order predicate calculus, is a systematic approach to logic based on the formulation of quantifiable statements such as "there exists an x such that..." or "for any x, it is the case that...”. A first-order logic theory is a logical system that can be derived from a set of axioms as an extension of first-order logic. FOL is distinguished from higher order logic in that the values "x" in the FOL statements are individual values and not properties. Even with this restriction, first-order logic is capable of formalizing all of set theory and most of mathematics. Its restriction to quantification of individual properties makes it difficult to use for the purposes of topology, but it is the classical logical theory underlying mathematics. The branch of mathematics called Model Theory is primarily concerned with connections between first order properties and first order structures. First order languages are by their nature very restrictive and as a result many questions can not be discussed using them. On the other hand first-order logics have precise grammars. Predicate calculus is quantificational and based on atomic formulas that are propositional functions and modal logic. In Predicate calculus, as in grammar, a subject is what we make an assertion about, and a predicate is what we assert about the subject. Automated Inference for FOL Automated inference using first-order logic is harder than using Propositional Logic because variables can take on potentially an infinite number of possible values from their domain. Hence there are potentially an infinite number of ways to apply the Universal-Elimination rule of inference. Godel's Completeness Theorem says that FOL is only semi-decidable. That is, if a sentence is true given a set of axioms, there is a procedure that will determine this. However, if the sentence is false, then there is no guarantee that a procedure will ever determine this. In other words, the procedure may never halt in this case. As a result, the Truth Table method of inference is not complete for FOL because the truth table size may be infinite. Natural deduction is complete for FOL, but is not practical for automated inference because the ‘branching factor’ in the search process is too large. This is the result of the necessity to try every inference rule in every possible way using the set of known sentences. Let us consider the rule of inference known as Modus Ponens (MP). Modus Ponens is a rule of inference pertaining to the IF/THEN operator. Modus Ponens states that if the antecedent of a conditional is true, then the consequent must also be true: (MP) Given the statements p and if p then q, infer q. The Generalized Modus Ponens (GMP) is not complete for FOL. However, Generalized Modus Ponens is complete for Knowledge Bases (KBs) containing only Horn clauses. An other very important logic that we shall discuss in detail in chapter 8 is Horn logic. A Horn clause is a sentence of the form: (Ax) (P1(x) ^ P2(x) ^ ... ^ Pn(x)) => Q(x) where there are 0 or more Pi's, and the Pi's and Q are positive (i.e., un-negated) literals. Horn clauses represent a subset of the set of sentences representable in FOL. For example: P(a) v Q(a) is a sentence in FOL, but is not a Horn clause. Natural deduction using GMP is complete for KBs containing only Horn clauses. Proofs start with the given axioms/premises in KB, deriving new sentences using GMP until the goal/query sentence is derived. This defines a forward chaining inference procedure because it moves "forward" from the KB to the goal. For example: KB = All cats like fish, cats eat everything they like, and Molly is a cat. In first-order logic then, (1) KB = (Ax) cat(x) => likes(x, Fish) (2) (Ax)(Ay) (cat(x) ^ likes(x,y)) => eats(x,y) (3) cat(Molly) Query: Does Molly eat fish? Proof: Use GMP with (1) and (3) to derive: (4) likes(Molly, Fish) Use GMP with (3), (4) and (2) to derive: eats(Molly, Fish) Conclusion: Yes, Molly eats fish. Description Logic Description Logics (DLs) allow specifying a terminological hierarchy using a restricted set of first-order formulas. DLs have nice computational properties (they are often decidable and tractable), but the inference services are restricted to classification and subsumption. That means, given formulae describing classes, the classifier associated with certain description logic will place them inside a hierarchy. Given an instance description, the classifier will determine the most specific classes to which the instance belongs. From a modeling point of view, Description Logics correspond to Predicate Logic statements with three variables suggesting that modeling is syntactically bound. Descriptive Logic is one possibility for Inference Engines for the Semantic Web. Another possibility is based on Horn-logic, which is another subset of First-Order Predicate logic (see Figure 2-2). In addition, Descriptive Logic and rule systems (e.g., Horn Logic) are somewhat orthogonal which means that they overlap, but one does not subsume the other. In other words, there are capabilities in Horn logic that are complementary to those available for Descriptive Logic. Both Descriptive Logic and Horn Logic are critical branches of logic that highlight essential limitations and expressive powers which are central issues to designing the Semantic Web languages. We will discuss them further in chapter 8. Using Full First-Order Logic (FFOL) for specifying axioms requires a full-fledged automated theorem prover. However, FOL is semi-decidable and doing inferencing becomes computationally untractable for large amounts of data and axioms. This means, than in an environment like the Web, FFOL programs will not scale to handle huge amounts of knowledge. Besides full first theorem proving would mean maintaining consistency throughout the Web, which is impossible. Description Logic fragment of FOL. FOL includes expressiveness beyond the overlap, notably: positive disjunctions; existentials; and entailment of non-ground and non-atomic conclusions. Horn FOL is another fragment of FOL. Horn Logic Program (LP) is a slight weakening of Horn FOL. "Weakening" here means that the conclusions from a given set of Horn premises that are entailed according to the Horn LP formalism are a subset of the conclusions entailed (from that same set of premises) according to the Horn FOL formalism. However, the set of ground atomic conclusions is the same in the Horn LP as in the Horn FOL. For most practical purposes (e.g., relational database query answering), Horn LP is thus essentially similar in its power to the Horn FOL. Horn LP is a fragment of both FOL and nonmonotonic LP. This discussion may seem esoteric, but it is precisely these types of issues that will decide both the design of the Semantic Web as well as is likelihood to succeed. Higher Order Logic Higher Order Logics (HOL's) provide greater expressive power than FOL, but they are even more difficult computationally. For example, in HOL's, one can have true statements that are not provable (see discussion of Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem). There are two aspects of this issue: higher-order syntax and higher-order semantics. If a higher-order semantics is not needed (and this is often the case), a second-order logic can often be translated into a first-order logic. In first-order semantics, variables can only range over domains of individuals or over the names of predicates and functions, but not over sets as such. In higher-order syntax, variables are allowed to appear in places where normally predicate or function symbols appear. Predicate calculus is the primary example of logic where syntax and semantics are both first-order. There are logics that have higher-order syntax but first-order semantics. Under a higher-order semantics, an equation between predicate (or function) symbols, is true, if and only if logics with a higher-order semantics and higher-order syntax are statements expressing trust about other statements. To state it another way, higher-order logic is distinguished from first-order logic in several ways. The first is the scope of quantifiers; in first-order logic, it is forbidden to quantify over predicates. The second way in which higher-order logic differs from first-order logic is in the constructions that are allowed in the underlying type theory. A higher-order predicate is a predicate that takes one or more other predicates as arguments. In general, a higher-order predicate of order n takes one or more (n − 1)th-order predicates as arguments (where n > 1). Recursion theory Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves rerunning a complete set of identical steps. In mathematics and computer science, recursion is a particular way of specifying a class of objects with the help of a reference to other objects of the class: a recursive definition defines objects in terms of the already defined objects of the class. A recursive process is one in which objects are defined in terms of other objects of the same type. Using a recurrence relation, an entire class of objects can be built up from a few initial values and a small number of rules. The Fibonacci numbers (i.e., the infinite sequence of numbers starting 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …, where the next number in the sequence is defined a s the sum of the previous two numbers) is a commonly known recursive set. The following is a recursive definition of person's ancestors: One's parents are one's ancestors (base case). The parents of any ancestor are also ancestors of the person under consideration (recursion step). Therefore, your ancestors include: your parents, and your parents' parents (grandparents), and your grandparents' parents, and everyone else you get by successively adding ancestors. It is convenient to think that a recursive definition defines objects in terms of "previously defined" member of the class. While recursive definitions are useful and widespread in mathematics, care must be taken to avoid self-recursion, in which an object is defined in terms of itself, leading to an infinite nesting (see Figure 1-1: “The Print Gallery” by M.C. Escher is a visual illustration of self-recursion). Knowledge Representation Let’s define what we mean by the fundamental terms “data,” “information,” “knowledge,” and "understanding." An item of data is a fundamental element of an application. Data can be represented by populations and labels. Data is raw; it exists and has no significance beyond its existence. It can exist in any form, usable or not. It does not have meaning by itself. Information on the other hand is an explicit association between items of data. Associations represent a function relating one set of things to another set of things. Information can be considered to be data that has been given meaning by way of relational connections. This "meaning" can be useful, but does not have to be. A relational database creates information from the data stored within it. Knowledge can be considered to be an appropriate collection of information, such that it is useful. Knowledge-based systems contain knowledge as well as information and data. A rule is an explicit functional association from a set of information things to a specific information thing. As a result, a rule is knowledge. We can construct information from data and knowledge from information and finally produce understanding from knowledge. Understanding lies at the highest level. Understanding is an interpolative and probabilistic process that is cognitive and analytical. It is the process by which one can take existing knowledge and synthesize new knowledge. One who has understanding can pursue useful actions because he can synthesize new knowledge or information from what is previously known (and understood). Understanding can build upon currently held information, knowledge, and understanding itself. AI systems possess understanding in the sense that they are able to synthesize new knowledge from previously stored information and knowledge. An important element of AI is the principle that intelligent behavior can be achieved through processing of symbolic structures representing increments of knowledge. This has produced knowledge-representation languages that allow the representation and manipulation of knowledge to deduce new facts from the existing knowledge. The knowledge-representation language must have a well-defined syntax and semantics system while supporting inference. Three techniques have been popular to express knowledge representation and inference: (1) Logic-based approaches, (2) Rule-based systems, and (3) Frames and semantic networks. Logic-based approaches use logical formulas to represent complex relationships. They require a well-defined syntax, semantics, and proof theory. The formal power of a logical theorem proof can be applied to knowledge to derive new knowledge. Logic is used as the formalism for programming languages and databases. It can also be used as a formalism to implement knowledge methodology. Any formalism that admits a declarative semantics and can be interpreted both as a programming language and a database language is a knowledge language. However, the approach is inflexible and requires great precision in stating the logical relationships. In some cases, common sense inferences and conclusions cannot be derived, and the approach may be inefficient, especially when dealing with issues that result in large combinations of objects or concepts. Rule-based approaches are more flexible and allow the representation of knowledge using sets of IF-THEN or other conditional rules. This approach is more procedural and less formal in its logic. As a result, reasoning can be controlled through a forward or backward chaining interpreter. Frames and semantic networks capture declarative information about related objects and concepts where there is a clear class hierarchy and where the principle of inheritance can be used to infer the characteristics of members of a subclass. The two forms of reasoning in this technique are matching (i.e., identification of objects having common properties), and property inheritance in which properties are inferred for a subclass. Frames and semantic networks are limited to representation and inference of relatively simple systems. In each of these approaches, the knowledge-representation component (i.e., problem-specific rules and facts) is separate from the problem-solving and inference procedures. For the Semantic Web to function, computers must have access to structured collections of information and sets of inference rules that they can use to conduct automated reasoning. AI researchers have studied such systems and produced today’s Knowledge Representation (KR). KR is currently in a state comparable to that of hypertext before the advent of the Web. Knowledge representation contains the seeds of important applications, but to fully realize its potential, it must be linked into a comprehensive global system. Computational Logic Programming a computer involves creating a sequence of logical instructions that the computer will use to perform a wide variety of tasks. While it is possible to create programs directly in machine language, it is uncommon for programmers to work at this level because of the abstract nature of the instructions. It is better to write programs in a simple text file using a high-level programming language which can later be compiled into executable code. The ‘logic model’ for programming is a basic element that communicates the logic behind a program. A logic model can be a graphic representation of a program illustrating the logical relationships between program elements and the flow of calculation, data manipulation or decisions as the program executes its steps. Logic models typically use diagrams, flow sheets, or some other type of visual schematic to convey relationships between programmatic inputs, processes, and outcomes. Logic models attempt to show the links in a chain of reasoning about relationships to the desired goal. The desired goal is usually shown as the last link in the model. A logic program may consist of a set of axioms and a goal statement. The logic form can be a set of ‘IF-THEN’ statements. The rules of inference are applied to determine whether the axioms are sufficient to ensure the truth of the goal statement. The execution of a logic program corresponds to the construction of a proof of the goal statement from the axioms. In the logic programming model the programmer is responsible for specifying the basic logical relationships and does not specify the manner in which the inference rules are applied. Thus Logic + Control = Algorithms The operational semantics of logic programs correspond to logical inference. The declarative semantics of logic programs are derived from the term model. The denotation of semantics in logic programs are defined in terms of a function which assigns meaning to the program. There is a close relation between the axiomatic semantics of imperative programs and logic programs. The control portion of the equation is provided by an inference engine whose role is to derive theorems based on the set of axioms provided by the programmer. The inference engine uses the operations of resolution and unification to construct proofs. Faulty logic models occur when the essential problem has not been clearly stated or defined. Program developers work carefully to construct logic models to avoid logic conflicts, recursive loops, and paradoxes within their computer programs. As a result, programming logic should lead to executable code without paradox or conflict, if it is flawlessly produced. Nevertheless we know that ‘bugs’ or programming errors do occur, some of which are directly or indirectly a result of logic conflicts. As programs have grown in size from thousands of line of code to millions of lines, the problems of ‘bugs’ and logic conflicts have also grown. Today programs such as operating systems can have over 25 million lines of codes and considered to have hundreds of thousands of ‘bugs’ most of which are seldom encountered during routine program usage. Confining logic issues to beta-testing on local servers allows programmers reasonable control of conflict resolution. Now consider applying many lines of application code logic to the Semantic Web were it may access many information nodes. The magnitude of the potential conflicts could be somewhat daunting. Artificial Intelligence John McCarthy of MIT contributed the term ‘Artificial Intelligence’ (AI) and by the late 1950s, there were many researchers in AI working on programming computers. Eventually, AI expanded into such fields as philosophy, psychology and biology. AI is sometimes described in two ways: strong AI and weak AI. Strong AI asserts that computers can be made to think on a level equal to humans. Weak AI simply holds that some ‘thinking-like’ features can be added to computers to make them more useful tools. Examples of Weak AI abound: expert systems, drive-by-wire cars, smart browsers, and speech recognition software. These weak AI components may, when combined, begin to approach the expectations of strong AI. AI includes the study of computers that can perform cognitive tasks including: understanding natural language statements, recognizing visual patterns or scenes, diagnosing diseases or illnesses, solving mathematical problems, performing financial analyses, learning new procedures for problem solving, and playing complex games, like chess. We will provide a more detailed discussion on Artificial Intelligence on the Web and what is meant by machine intelligence in Chapter 3. Web Architecture and Business Logic So far we have explored the basic elements, characteristics, and limitations of logic and suggested that errors in logic contribute to many significant ‘bugs’ that lead to crashed computer programs. Next we will review how Web architecture is used to partition the delivery of business logic from the user interface. The Web architecture keeps the logic restricted to executable code residing on the server and delivering user interface presentations residing within the markup languages traveling along the Internet. This simple arrangement of segregating the complexity of logic to the executable programs residing on servers has minimized processing difficulties over the Web itself. Today, markup languages are not equipped with logic connectives. So all complex logic and detailed calculations must be carried out by specially compiled programs residing on Web servers where they are accessed by server page frameworks. The result is highly efficient application programs on the server must communicate very inefficiently with other proprietary applications using XML in simple ASCII text. In addition, there is difficulty in interoperable programming which greatly inhibits automation of Web Services. Browsers such as Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator view Web pages written in HyperText Markup Language (HTML). The HTML program can be written to a simple text file that is recognized by the browser and it can call embedded script programming. In addition, HTML can include compiler directives that call server pages with access to proprietary compiled programming. As a result, simple-text HTML is empowered with important capabilities to call complex business logic programming residing on servers both in the frameworks of Microsoft’s .NET and Sun’s J2EE. These frameworks support Web Services and form a vital part of today’s Web. When a request comes into the Web server, the Web server simply passes the request to the program best able to handle it. The Web server doesn't provide any functionality beyond simply providing an environment in which the server-side program can execute and pass back the generated responses. The server-side program provides functions as transaction processing, database connectivity, and messaging. Business logic is concerned with logic about: how we model real world business objects - such as accounts, loans, travel; how these objects are stored; how these objects interact with each other - e.g. a bank account must have an owner and a bank holder's portfolio is the sum of his accounts; and who can access and update these objects. As an example, consider an online store that provides real-time pricing and availability information. The site will provide a form for you to choose a product. When you submit your query, the site performs a lookup and returns the results embedded within an HTML page. The site may implement this functionality in numerous ways. The Web server delegates the response generation to a script, however, the business logic for the pricing lookup is included from an application server. With that change, instead of the script knowing how to look up the data and formulate a response, the script can simply call the application server's lookup service. The script can then use the service's result when the script generates its HTML response. The application server serves the business logic for looking up a product's pricing information. That functionality doesn't say anything about display or how the client must use the information. Instead, the client and application server send data back and forth. When a client calls the application server's lookup service, the service simply looks up the information and returns it to the client. By separating the pricing logic from the HTML response-generating code, the pricing logic becomes reusable between applications. A second client, such as a cash register, could also call the same service as a clerk checking out a customer. Recently, eXtensible Markup Language (XML) Web Services use an XML payload to a Web server. The Web server can then process the data and respond much as application servers have in the past. XML has become the standard for data transfer of all types of applications. XML provides a data model that is supported by most data-handling tools and vendors. Structuring data as XML allows hierarchical, graph-based representations of the data to be presented to tools, which opens up a host of possibilities. The task of creating and deploying Web Services automatically requires interoperable standards. The most advanced vision for the next generation of Web Services is the development of Web Services over Semantic Web Architecture. The Semantic Web Now let’s consider using logic within markup languages on the Semantic Web. This means empowering the Web’s expressive capability, but at the expense of reducing Web performance. The current Web is built on HTML and XML, which describes how information is to be displayed and laid out on a Web page for humans to read. In addition, HTML is not capable of being directly exploited by information retrieval techniques. XML may have enabled the exchange of data across the Web, but it says nothing about the meaning of that data. In effect, the Web has developed as a medium for humans without a focus on data that could be processed automatically. As a result, computers are unable to automatically process the meaning of Web content. For machines to perform useful automatic reasoning tasks on these documents, the language machines use must go beyond the basic semantics of XML Schema. They will require an ontology language, logic connectives, and rule systems. By introducing these elements the Semantic Web is intended to be a paradigm shift just as powerful as the original Web. The Semantic Web will bring meaning to the content of Web pages, where software agents roaming from page-to-page can carry out automated tasks. The Semantic Web will be constructed over the Resource Description Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology Language (OWL). In addition, it will implement logic inference and rule systems. These languages are being developed by the W3C. Data can be defined and linked using RDF and OWL so that there is more effective discovery, automation, integration, and reuse across different applications. These languages are conceptually richer than HTML and allow representation of the meaning and structure of content (interrelationships between concepts). This makes Web content understandable by software agents, opening the way to a whole new generation of technologies for information processing, retrieval, and analysis. If a developer publishes data in XML on the Web, it doesn’t require much more effort to take the extra step and publish the data in RDF. By creating ontologies to describe data, intelligent applications won’t have to spend time translating various XML schemas. An ontology defines the terms used to describe and represent an area of knowledge. Although XML Schema is sufficient for exchanging data between parties who have agreed to the definitions beforehand, their lack of semantics prevents machines from reliably performing this task with new XML vocabularies. In addition, the ontology of RDF and RDF Schema (RDFS) is very limited (see Chapter 5). RDF is roughly limited to binary ground predicates and RDF Schema is roughly limited to a subclass hierarchy and a property hierarchy with domain and range definitions. Adding an Ontology language will permit the development of explicit, formal conceptualizations of models (see Chapter 6). The main requirements of an onotology language include: a well-defined syntax, a formal semantics, convenience of expression, n efficient reasoning support system, and sufficient expressive power. Since the W3C has established that the Semantic Web would require much more expressive power than using RDF and RDF Schema would offer, the W3C has defined Web Ontology Language (called OWL). The layered architecture of the Semantic Web would suggest that one way to develop the necessary ontology language is to extend RDF Schema by using the RDF meaning of classes and properties and adding primitives to support richer expressiveness. However, simply extending RDF Schema would fail to achieve the best combination of expressive power and efficient reasoning. The layered architecture of the Semantic Web promotes the downward compatibility and reuse of software is only achieved with OWL Full (see Chapter 6), but at the expense of computational intractability. RDF and OWL (DL and Lite, see Chapter 6) are specializations of predicate logic. They provide a syntax that fits well with Web languages. They also define reasonable subsets of logic that offer a trade-off between expressive power and computational complexity. Semantic Web research has developed from the traditions of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and ontology languages. Currently, the most important ontology languages on the Web are XML, XML Schema, RDF, RDF Schema, and OWL. Agents are pieces of software that work autonomously and proactively. In most cases agent will simply collect and organize information. Agents on the Semantic Web will receive some tasks to perform and seek information from Web resources, while communicating with other Web agents, in order to fulfill its task. Semantic Web agents will utilize metadata, ontologies, and logic to carry out its tasks. In a closed environment, Semantic Web specifications have already been used to accomplish many tasks, such as data interoperability for business-to-business (B2B) transactions. Many companies have expended resources to translate their internal data syntax for their partners. As the world migrates towards RDF and ontologies, interoperability will become more flexible to new demands. An inference is a process of using rules to manipulate knowledge to produce new knowledge. Adding logic to the Web means using rules to make inferences and choosing a course of action. The logic must be powerful enough to describe complex properties of objects, but not so powerful that agents can be tricked by a paradox. A combination of mathematical and engineering issues complicates this task. We will provide a more detailed presentation on paradoxes on the Web and what is solvable on the Web in the next few chapters. Inference Engines for the Semantic Web Inference engines process the knowledge available in the Semantic Web by deducing new knowledge from already specified knowledge. Higher Order Logic (HOL) based inference engines have to greatest expressive power among all known logics such as the characterization of transitive closure. However, higher order logics don't have nice computational properties. There are true statements, which are unprovable (Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem). Full First Order Logic (FFOL) based inference engines for specifying axioms requires a full-fledged automated theorem prover. FOL is semi-decidable and doing inferencing is computationally not tractable for large amounts of data and axioms. This means, than in an environment like the Web, HOL and FFOL programs would not scale up for handling huge amounts of knowledge. Besides full first theorem proving would mean to maintain consistency throughout the web, which is impossible. Predicate calculus is the primary example of logic where syntax and semantics are both first-order. From a modeling point of view, Description Logics correspond to Predicate Logic statements with three variables suggesting that modeling is syntactically bound and is a good candidate language for Web logic. Other possibilities for inference engines for the Semantic Web are languages based on Horn-logic, which is another fragment of First-Order Predicate logic (see Figure 2-2). In addition, Descriptive Logic and rule systems (e.g., Horn Logic) have different capabilities. Both Descriptive Logic and Horn Logic are critical branches of logic that highlight essential limitations and expressive powers which are central issues to designing the Semantic Web languages. We will discuss them further in chapters, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Conclusion For the Semantic Web to provide machine processing capabilities, the logic expressive power of mark-up languages must be balanced against the resulting computational complexity of reasoning. In this chapter, we examined both the expressive characteristics of logic languages, as well as, their inherit limitations. First Order Logics (FOL) fragments such as Descriptive Logic and Horn Logic offer attractive characteristics for Web applications and set the parameters for how expressive Web markup languages can become. We also reviewed the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and how logic is applied in computer programming. After exploring the basic elements, characteristics, and limitations of logic and suggesting that errors in logic contribute to many significant ‘bugs’ that lead to crashed computer programs, we reviewed how Web architecture is used to partition the delivery of business logic from the user interface. The Web architecture keeps the logic restricted to executable code residing on the server and delivering user interface presentations residing within the markup languages traveling along the Internet. Finally, we discussed the implications of using logic within markup languages on the Web through the development of the Semantic Web. Our conclusions from this chapter include: Logic is the foundation of knowledge representation which can be applied to AI in general and the World Wide Web specially. Logic can provide a high-level language for expressing knowledge and has high expressive power. Logic has a well-understood formal semantics for assigning unambiguous meaning to logic statements. In addition, we saw that proof systems exist that can automatically derive statements syntactically from premises. Predicate logic uniquely offers a sound and complete proof system while higher-order logics do not. By tracking the proof to reach its consequence the logic can provide explanations for the answers. Currently, complex logic and detailed calculations must be carried out by specially compiled programs residing on Web servers where they are accessed by server page frameworks. The result is highly efficient application programs on the server must communicate very inefficiently with other proprietary applications using XML in simple ASCII text. In addition, this difficulty for interoperable programs greatly inhibits automation of Web Services. The Semantic Web offers a way to use logic in the form of Descriptive Logic or Horn Logic on the Web. Exercises 2-1. Explain how logic for complex business calculations is currently carried out through .NET and J2EE application servers. 2-2. Explain the difference between FOL and HOL. 2-3. Why is it necessary to consider less powerful expressive languages for the Semantic Web? 2-4. Why is undeciability a concern on the Web? Website http://escherdroste.math.leidenuniv.nl/ offers visualize the mathematical structure behind Escher's Print Gallery using the Escher and the Droste effect. This mathematical structure answers some questions about Escher's picture, such as: "what's in the blurry white hole in the middle?" This project is an initiative of Hendrik Lenstra of the Universiteit Leiden and the University of California at Berkeley. Bart de Smit of the Universiteit Leiden runs the project. Interlude #2: Truth and Beauty As John passed with a sour look on his face, Mary looked up from her text book and asked, “Didn’t you enjoy the soccer game?” “How can you even ask that when we lost?” asked John gloomily. “I think the team performed beautifully, despite the score” said Mary. This instantly frustrated John and he said, "Do you know Mary that sometimes I find it disarming the way you express objects in terms of beauty. I find that simply accepting something on the basis of its beauty can lead to false conclusions?" Mary reflected upon this before offering a gambit of her own, "Well John, do you know that sometimes I find that relying on objective truth alone can lead to unattractive conclusions." John became flustered and reflected his dismay by demanding, "Give me an example." Without hesitation, Mary said, "Perhaps you will recall that in the late 1920's, mathematicians were quite certain that every well-posed mathematical question had to have a definite answer ─ either true or false. For example, suppose they claimed that every even number was the sum of two prime numbers,” referring to Goldbach's Conjecture which she had just been studying in her text book. Mary continued, “Mathematicians would seek the truth or falsity of the claim by examining a chain of logical reasoning that would lead in a finite number of steps to prove if the claim were either true or false." "So mathematicians thought at the time," said John. "Even today most people still do." "Indeed," said Mary. "But in 1931, logician Kurt Gödel proved that the mathematicians were wrong. He showed that every sufficiently expressive logical system must contain at least one statement that can be neither proved nor disproved following the logical rules of that system. Gödel proved that not every mathematical question has to have a yes or no answer. Even a simple question about numbers may be undecidable. In fact, Gödel proved that t here exist questions that while being undecidable by the rules of logical system can be seen to be actually true if we jump outside that system. But they cannot be proven to be true.” “Thank you for that clear explanation,” said John. “But isn’t such a fact simply a translation into mathematic terms of the famous Liar’s Paradox: ‘This statement is false.’” “Well, I think it's a little more complicated than that,” said Mary. “But Gödel did identify the problem of self-reference that occurs in the Liar’s Paradox. Nevertheless, Gödel’s theorem contradicted the thinking of most of the great mathematicians of his time. The result is that one can not be as certain as the mathematician had desired. See what I mean, Gödel may have found an important truth, but it was – well to be frank – rather disappointingly unattractive," concluded Mary. "On the contrary,” countered John, “from my perspective it was the beauty of the well-posed mathematical question offered by the mathematicians that was proven to be false. Mary replied, “I’ll have to think about that.”

excerpt of science fictionthriller novel Youngblood. Youngblood AMAZON Death’s Dream Kingdom* “I can’t breathe!” Youngblood’s lungs strained to inhale the last of the thin air but drew in only an empty breath. His heart pounded against his hollow lungs. His fingers stretched wide and then clenched. The last faint echoes of whining machinery died away as the fading glow of emergency lights sputtered out. He opened his eyes wide trying to make sense of the dark confined space. Where am I? Lying on his back in pitch black, he reached up and touched a smooth encapsulating surface without seams or latches. A coffin? Banging against the case, a raspy cry escaped his mouth, “Helppp.” He scratched with fingers until they bled; he smashed with fists until they bruised. “AUUGGH!” His face was a bulging purple mask with a protruding red tongue. Gory hands wiped away oozing goo dripping from his nose. Each passing second was a countdown toward imploding lungs. Coma and death were fast approaching—causing a spasm of raw cold fear—a deep primal terror like the first great scare a child experienced when his nightmare turned ‘real’ and the claws of a hideous monster squeezed his throat. “Air! I’ve got to have air,” he begged in a whisper. He balled his fist and punched him. He kicked. Again, and again. CRACK! A small fissure created a loud hiss as air trickled into the confined space. Finally able to inhale, Youngblood’s chest rose and fell with each precious breath. The visceral threat of suffocation lessened, but the injuries continued to throb. He pulled out some of the needles that feathered his body. It’s a hibernation chamber. They were supposed to revive him when they found a cure. Did they find a cure? For a moment, he opened his mouth and raised his eyebrows, then . . . Stupid! Stupid! This wasn’t a normal recovery. There were countless things wrong with this. Was this a random system failure? Someone should have been monitoring. His brain screamed. Why isn’t there an alarm and an attendant? They might all be dead. He tried to break out of the case. The straining structure moaned as he pressed against it, but his debilitated joints and impaired muscles lacked the strength to free him. As he continued to welcome the incessant wheezing of cool air filtering into the cocoon, he waited, but no one came. The only sounds of activity were the sparks of electrical wires far off in the distance. With stiff fingers, he massaged his sore arms and legs, but all his efforts to break out of the coffin-like container failed. He dug his fingernails into his palms to escape the deadness that gnawed inside him. Dark destructive thoughts flooded in. The future that was supposed to augur health had turned into a nightmare. His mind stretched back to something very painful, a filament-thin memory, I was eighteen when the debilitating effects of the illness began. Father said hibernation was the only solution. I trusted him. Lies! All his words were lies . . . he just wanted to be rid of me. Lingering on the ghost-like memory as it waxed and waned, it was the end of hope. At that moment, everything came crashing down inside of him. The chamber grew claustrophobic. I’m done. He closed his eyes. It’s over. He let the minutes pass, hoping the pain would end, wishing he would end . . . but neither did. Finally, he opened his eyes and took a deep breath. Focusing his thoughts, he pushed back against the black despair. No! I won’t give up. I’m going to survive . . . somehow. But it was undeniable, he needed immediate medical aid, or this chamber would become a coffin. He screamed when he yanked out the rest of the needles. He cast away the trailing tubes that had sustained his life for . . . How long? No way of telling. You can do this. You must. He pressed against the case once more. It creaked and groaned like a living thing and it took many more tries before, at last, it broke open enough to allow him to squeeze out. Leaning over the edge, he shifted his weight to let it carry him over the side. Hitting the floor with a thump, he began to crawl. It took an hour to reach the wall a mere twenty yards away. There were other chambers along the way, but none appeared operational. “Is anyone there?” he called out—repeatedly. There was never a reply. In a moment of raw honesty, he understood: No one else escaped. Moving along the wall until he reached a door, he wobbled to his feet and managed to stand and press a button. It slid open. He tried to walk, but his legs were unwilling. Leaning against the wall, he let his body slide down to the floor like a sack of sand. There was a dim glow of light at the end of the hall, but crawling took an interminable effort. The light was coming from a control console inside a small room. The dark surroundings offered little information about the devices inside. Exhausted, he hoisted himself into a chair and listened to the rhythmic sound of blood drops smacking onto the floor like a drum beating Taps. As his face blanched, he trembled with dizziness and nausea, his tunnel vision narrowed, the room blackened and spun . . . and then . . . nothingness . . . *** Youngblood woke in a cold sweat. His head throbbed but the room had stopped spinning. He was still sitting at the dysfunctional control panel though only a few dials remained lit. As a computer science major, he thought he should make sense of them, but they were as foreign as a Gödel puzzle. Damn! His fist smashed into the console. HUMMM. He heard the distinct sound but couldn’t pinpoint its location. With every sense alert, he sat waiting . . . “Hello? Is anyone there?” The cold dark concrete walls and poured concrete floor echoed his words but offered no response. There were a couple of doors further down the hall. He stood up. Simply stretching his body took all his effort. His entire body hurt, but slowly he managed to shuffle toward the doors. The first door was locked. The next one was too. He twisted around a corner, but a misstep caused him to fight his own momentum to forestall crashing headfirst into the unyielding wall. The impact to his shoulder knocked him back and whirled him around. Reaching out, he grasped a handle and yanked it to steady himself. The door opened. A storage closet? Catching his breath, he strained his eyes against the dark shadows to identify several large cardboard boxes and a few wooden crates. The largest box was next to a cabinet with symbols he didn’t recognize. Yet, a Red Cross sign was visible on the furthest crate. He stretched his hands toward the old dirt covered wooden crate and pried open the thick heavy lid with his fingers. “Argh.” The cry of anguish was from his own mouth. He placed his suffering hands under his armpits and squeezed until the strained fingers returned to normal. After several minutes, he pulled the lid away and let dirt rattle down into the container. He reached inside to grab a medical package. Thanks. He used the meager emergency rations to stop the bleeding and applied analgesic wherever he could reach. The medication flowed through his veins, stifling the shock and blood loss. He started to relax but his parched throat cried . . . water. He was unable to make out the markings on the other boxes, but he opened the nearest one and groped inside for something familiar. No. Next. No. The last cardboard box . . . Yes. A bottle of water. Taking great gulps, he guzzled what seemed a treasure from an extinct world. He looked for more. There was only one. He tackled another wooden crate. Inside was a flashlight, but it didn’t work. There were batteries on the bottom, but they leaked acid goop. Yet, a few seemed OK. He tried them and felt like a rich man when the flashlight lit and offer the first real peek at his surroundings. There was a nearby room with more defunct hibernation chambers. Another room had medical equipment for reviving patients. But there were no windows anywhere. It’s a bunker. But why put hibernation chambers underground? Putting the puzzle aside, he dug deeper into the storage containers. There were useful items; a butane lighter, a compass, nylon line, a hatchet, a shovel, a hacksaw and lots of basic tools for repairing electrical and computer equipment. He found a workman’s jumpsuit coveralls hanging from a hook on the closet wall and a pair of large black boots. These will come in handy. He moved on and found another closet full of boxes. These were sealed with a plastic wrap, but there was no auxiliary power system visible. There’s got to be a communication device somewhere. He returned to the console and found a diagram framed on the nearby wall. It appeared to be a network of underground tunnels connecting bunkers. An annotated alphanumerical system designated this bunker HB11. Several others had similar designations, but there were also two unique identifiers, YO and SP. The HB might be for hibernation, but he had no clue what YO or SP might represent, nor could he guess how to access the network of tunnels. As he stared at the tunnel map, memorizing the layout, he imagined all the places he could travel to and the places he might visit. What kind of facilities were at each stop along the way? Maybe someday he will find out. He examined some instruments on the console which still had power. The computer system seemed functional, but there wasn’t any written material or operable viewscreen that could offer him instructions. The instruments were as complicated as a spaceship’s and when he attempted to patch into the AI system, he heard a noise. He held his breath. Is someone coming? A humming sound continued from a device in the next room. He must have activated it with his random actions. The machine was marked with English letters and symbols that indicated it was a medical treatment apparatus. He could read several tags on the valves and dials and guessed it was a rejuvenation machine. It took several minutes to surmise how it would work. I’ve got to try this. He climbed naked into the rejuvenation tub and opened a faucet. Synth-fluid and hot medicated elixirs filled the vat. Setting the timer for two hours, he lingered while the potions treated his many superficial ailments. A shame this can’t cure my disease. He relaxed during the treatment while it invigorated his frail body. What’s next? He dragged his body about and toured the bunker, returning to the original room. The flashlight shone on dozens of forsaken hibernation chambers. There was a twin room across the hall, but it too had become a graveyard. A tragedy. I should commemorate them . . . later. He considered revisiting the closets and the locked doors, but that could wait. He looked for more water. No water. The next decision would be critical for his survival. He wanted to use the rejuvenation machine while he restored the power and computer systems, but how long would that take? He had no food or water. Besides, even though he had been a computer whiz, this equipment was far beyond his expertise. Questions exploded in his head like a string of fireworks. Should I stay here? Should I go exploring? Running his fingers through his long shaggy hair, he concluded there was no choice. Putting on the coveralls and boots, he stuffed computer instruments and tools into his cargo pockets. He filled a backpack with survival items and even though it was heavy, he was chafing to get started. Where are the people? *** “I’ve never seen a sky like this,” said Youngblood, as he climbed out of the bunker’s hatch. His eyes took a moment to adjust to the bright sun peeking between a few windswept clouds. “Noon,” he mused and let the hatch drop down. Birds flew overhead, and a glimpse of motion alerted him to a nearby rodent, but there were no roads or worn paths visible. “There’s life, but where are the people?” Originally, he had been placed in hibernation in California’s Stanford Hospital. He had no idea where he was now, but it stood to reason he shouldn’t be too very far away. He surveyed the landscape around him. To the east, he saw a prominent hill rising about a mile away. It was surrounded by scrub brush poking out between a few scattered pine trees. “Hmm . . . a good vantage point.” He swung around and noticed similar regions to the north and south. But things were far different to the west. Where the sky kissed the horizon, blue turned into a mosaic of red, brown, and purple swirls, and the silhouette of a city’s barebone skeleton rose in the distance like a faraway mirage. An acidic stench of smoke and ash invaded his nostrils forcing him to cover his mouth to suppress a spasmodic cough. A brownish yellow haze floated on the hot dry air and dark soot settled on his coveralls. His mouth could barely speak the words, “I can’t believe they actually did it.” A single tear ran down his cheek as he brushed the barren residual ash off his clothes. Anyway, it’s better to die in a flash . . . than suffocate. He licked his lips and swallowed to relieve his parched throat. His fear . . . Where are the people? Became . . . Are there people? Swinging the backpack over his shoulder, he faced east and started forward. A slight cooling breeze sent him on his way as he marched toward the hill. He walked only a few hundred yards before he had to stop and rest. The process repeated itself until his muscles cramped and screamed. He wiped the perspiration off his forehead with his sleeve as he passed areas of dead trees and fall branches. He remained alert for a flash of color, or movement, or any sign of smoke.

excerpt of the technology book The Intelligent Wireless Web. The Intelligent Wireless Web AMAZON Chapter 10.0 Progress in Developing the Intelligent Wireless Web In this chapter, we take the components developed in earlier chapters and lay out a plausible framework for building the Intelligent Wireless Web including our evaluation of the compatibility, integration and synergy issues facing the five merging technology areas that will build it: User Interface – from click to speech Personal Space – from tangled wires to multifunction wireless devices Networks – from wired infrastructure to integrated wired/wireless Protocols – from IP to Mobile IP Web Architecture – from dumb and static to intelligent and dynamic. Finally, we present strategic planning guidelines and the conclusions you could reach as a result of this book. We began this book by describing what we meant by the “Intelligent Wireless Web and presenting an overview of the framework for plausibly constructing it. Our concept of an Intelligent Wireless Web weaves together several important concepts related to intelligence (the ability to learn), “wirelessness” (mobility and convenience) and its advances in telecommunications and information technology that together promised to deliver increasingly capable information services to mobile users anytime and anywhere. We suggested putting these concepts together to form the “Intelligent Wireless Web.” We stated that it was certainly possible to develop intelligent applications for the Internet without media (audio/video) Web features or wireless capability. But, it was our suggestion that Web media, such as, audio could lead to improved user interfaces using speech and that small wireless devices widely distributed could lead to easier access to large portions of the worlds population. The end result could be, not just an intelligent Internet but a widely available, easily accessible, user friendly, Intelligent Wireless Web. Fundamentally, our vision for an Intelligent Wireless Web is very simple - it is a network that provides anytime, anywhere access through efficient user interfaces to applications that learn. Notwithstanding the difficulty of defining intelligence (in humans or machines), we recognized that terms such as “artificial intelligence”, “intelligent agents”, “smart machines” and the like, refer to the performance of functions that mimic those associated with human intelligence. The full range of information services is the next logical step along with the introduction of a variety of different portable user devices (e.g., pagers, PDAs, web-enabled cell phones, small portable computers) that have wireless connectivity. The results will be wireless technology as an extension of the present evolutionary trend in information technology. In addition, Artificial Intelligence and intelligent software applications will also make their way onto the wireless Web and that a performance Index or measure should be developed to evaluate the progress of Web smarts. In the following sections, we will bring together the components of the Intelligent Wireless Web and how it is being constructed. But building it will be a broad and far-reaching task involving more technology integration and synthesis than revolutionary inventions. Future Wireless Communication Process Ideally, the future wireless communication process should start with a user interface based on speech recognition where we merely talk to a personal mobile device that recognizes our identity, words and commands. The personal mobile device would connect seamlessly to embedded and fixed devices in the immediate environment. The message would be relayed to a server residing on a network with the necessary processing power and software to analyzed the contents of the message. The server could then draw necessary supplemental knowledge and services from around the world through the Internet. Finally, the synthesized messages would be delivered to the appropriate parties in their own language on their own personal mobile device. To build this ideal future wireless communication process we must connect the following inherent technologies of communications along with their essential components: Connecting People to Devices – the user interface. Currently we rely on the mouse, keyboard and video display; speech recognition and understanding deployed for mobile devices is a key component for the future. Connecting Devices to Devices. Currently hard-wired connections between devices limit mobility and constrain the design of networks. In the future, the merging of wired and wireless communication infrastructure require the establishment of wireless protocols and standards for the connection between devices; future smart applications require the development and improvement of intelligence services. Also needed is a method to measure the performance and/or intelligence of the Internet so that we can assess advancements. Connecting Devices to People. To deliver useful information to the globally mobile user, future systems require advances in speech synthesis and language translation. So lets start connecting the necessary technologies to fulfill the vision of an Intelligent Wireless Web. The physical components and software necessary to construct and implement the Intelligent Wireless Web require compatibility, integration and synergy of five merging technology areas: < >User Interface – to transition from the mouse click to speech as the primary method of communication between people and devices;Personal Space – to transition from connection of devices by tangled wires to multifunction wireless devices;Networks – to transition from a mostly wired infrastructure to an integrated wired/wireless system of interconnections;Protocols – transition from the original Internet protocol (IP) to the new Mobile IP; andWeb Architecture – to transition from dumb and static applications to new applications that are intelligent, dynamic and constantly learning. FIGURE 10-1 Building the Intelligent Wireless Web User Interface – from Click to Speech We have evaluated communication between humans and their machines and found the problem of how to obtain speech recognition functionality in a handheld or embedded device to be challenging; however efforts currently underway look favorable for solutions in the relatively near term. While we may expect speech interfaces to permeate society steadily, we anticipate that successful traditional interfaces, such as, mouse and touch screen, will continue to be in operation for a very long time. Particularly, for such high power applications as selecting events on detailed graphical representations. Certainly, it is not a difficult problem for a handheld device (such as a cell phone) to perform limited speech recognition activities (such as voice activated dialing). But since the demands for speech functionality increase with the greater complexity of the speech recognition tasks, it becomes more and more difficult to provide these capabilities on a small mobile wireless device with limited capabilities. Therefore, the problem becomes one of distributing the capability for speech recognition and understanding between the local wireless device and remote processing resources to which it is connected. This problem is being currently addressed in far-reaching research at several places, but most notably at the MIT AI Laboratory and at Microsoft Research. The Microsoft effort is directed at technology projects supporting and leading to the vision of a fully speech enabled computer. The Microsoft concept Dr. Who, uses continuous speech recognition and spoken language understanding. Dr. Who is designed to power a voice-based pocket PC with a web browser, email, and cellular telephone capabilities. The highly promising initiative know as, Project Oxygen, is ongoing at MIT’s AI Laboratory. This visionary effort is developing a comprehensive system to achieve the objective of anytime anywhere computing. In this concept, a user carries a wireless interface device that is continuously connected to a network of computing devices in a manner similar to the way cell phone communications maintain continuous connection to a communications network. The local device is speech enabled, and much of the speech recognition capability is embedded in the remote system of high-capability computers. Systems for conversational interface are also being developed that are capable of communicating in several languages. These systems can answer queries in real-time with a distributed architecture that can retrieve data from several different domains of knowledge to answer a query. Such systems have five main functions: speech recognition, language understanding, information retrieval, language generation and speech synthesis. Speech recognition may be an ideal interface for the handheld devices being developed as part of the Oxygen project, but the Oxygen project will need far more advanced speech-recognition systems than are currently available to achieve its ultimate objective of enabling interactive conversation with full understanding. Figure 10-2 identifies the main requirements for an effective speech-based user interface and identifies the current status of each. To meet the needs of the Intelligent Wireless Web, the ultimate desired result is that speech recognition, understanding, translation and synthesis become practical for routine use on handheld, wearable and embedded devices. USER INTERFACE – from click to speech REQUIREMENTS STATUS Speech Recognition Speech Understanding Text to Speech Translation Speech Synthesis Speech Synthesis Markup Language Advanced Continuing Advanced Continuing Continuing Lagging Speech recognition, understanding, translation and synthesis become practical for use on handheld, wearable and embedded devices. RESULTS FIGURE 10-2 Building the User Interface Personal Space – from Wired to Wireless We imagined living our life within the confines of our own Personal Space - without wires, but with devices to “connect” us wherever we travel. Implementation of a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN), composed of the personal devices around us as well as our immediate environment is one solution. In the office, devices improve work productivity by enabling access to data, text, and images relating to performing our jobs and by providing for analysis, access to software applications and communications as needed. Creating a WPAN of our immediately available devices will enable a future where a lifetime of knowledge may be accessed through gateways worn on the body or placed within the immediate environment (including our home, auto, office, school, library, ect). WPAN will also allow devices to work together and share each other's information and services. For example, a web page can be called up on a small screen, and can then be wirelessly sent to a printer for full size printing. A mobile WPAN can even be created in a vehicle via interface devices such as wireless headsets, microphones and speakers for communications. As envisioned, WPAN will allow the user to customize his or her communications capabilities permitting everyday devices to become smart, tetherless devices that spontaneously communicate whenever they are in close proximity. Figure 10-3 summarizes the requirements and their status for this element of the Intelligent Wireless Web; the objective is the achieve the ability for handheld, wearable, and embedded devices to connect easily without wires and share software applications, as needed, producing office, home and mobile Wireless Personal Area Networks. PERSONAL SPACE – from wired to wireless REQUIREMENTS STATUS Advanced Continuing Lagging Lagging Adaptable wireless devices Wireless protocol Wireless small screen applications “Nomadic” or mobile software for devices Handheld, wearable, and embedded devices connect easily without wires and share software applications, as needed, producing office, home and mobile Wireless Personal Area Networks. RESULTS FIGURE 10 - 3 Building the Your Personal Space Networks – from Wired to Integrated Wired/Wireless The earliest computers were stand-alone, unconnected machines. During the 1980’s, mergers, takeovers and downsizing have led to a need to consolidate company data in fast, seamless, integrated database have for all corporate information. With these driving forces, Intranets and local networks began to increase in size, and this required ways to interface with each other. Over the past decade, enterprise models and architectures, as well as, their corresponding implementation in actual business practices have changed to take advantage of new technologies. The big lure to wireless is the potential for big money in implementing wireless architectures that can send information packets from people with small personal devices, such as cell phones, to the a company’s Web site and there to conduct transactions. The number of wireless subscribers is expected to grow globally from the current few million to more than 400 million by 2005. The vast system of interconnecting networks that comprise the Internet is composed of several different types of transmission media, dominated by wired media but including: < >WiredFiber opticTwisted pairs (copper)Coaxial cable < >WirelessMicrowaveInfraredLaser NETWORKS – from wired to integrated wired/wireless REQUIREMENTS STATUS Wireless LAN Wireless WAN Satellites Wired Interface Advanced Advanced Continuing Continuing Networks continue migration to optical fiber for long haul while last mile is met by both fiber, mobile wireless, and fixed wireless (LMDS & MDDS) RESULTS FIGURE 10-4 Building Integrated Networks Protocols – from IP to Mobile IP To achieve the mobility requirements of the Intelligent Wireless Web, the Wireless Appliance Protocol, WAP, provides a global standard for data-oriented services to mobile devices thereby enabling anywhere and anytime access. In so doing, access will be provided to far more end-users than can be reached by using the personal computer as a fixed end point. Figure 10-5 provides an overview of the needed changes to support the Intelligent Wireless Web. The anticipated result is to provide intelligent networking software for routing and tracking that leads to general changes in IP networking protocols toward mobile IP. Sitting on top of the entire layer infrastructure will be a new control-plan for applications that smooth routing. PROTOCOLS - from IP to Mobile IP Continuing Continuing IPv6 Mobile IP standard REQUIREMENTS STATUS Intelligent networking software for routing and tracking that leads to general changes in IP networking protocols toward mobile IP. Sitting on top of the entire layer infrastructure will be a new control-plan for applications that smooth routing. RESULTS FIGURE 10 - 5 Building the Mobile Internet Protocols Web Architecture - Dumb & Static to Intelligent & Dynamic Ideally, the wireless communication process should start with the user talking to a personal, or embedded, device that recognizes his identity, words and commands. It will connect seamlessly to the correct transmission device, drawing on whatever resources are required from around the Web. In one case, only database search sorting and retrieval might be required. Or in another case, a specialized Web Service application program might be required. In any case, the information will be evaluated, and the content of the message will be augmented with the appropriate supporting data to fill in the ‘blanks’. If there is appropriate supplementary audio, or video, it will be included for reference. Finally, the results will be delivered to the appropriate parties in their own language through their own different and varied connection devices. For the Web to learn how to conduct this type of intelligent processing requires a mechanism for the adapting and self-organizing on a hypertext network. In addition, it needs to develop Learning Algorithms that would allow it to autonomously change its structure and organize the knowledge it contains, by "learning" the ideas and preferences of its users. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) suggests the use of better semantic information as part of web documents, and of the use of next generation Web languages Figure 10-6 provides a summary of the semantic web architecture needed to support the Intelligent Wireless Web. Intelligent applications running directly over the Web, as well as, AI Web Services served from AI service providers will progressively increase the tasking performed with adaptive, dynamic intelligent products. In addition, a Web performance Index will provide some useful measures of Web progress. WEB ARCHITECTURE – from dumb and static to intelligent and dynamic REQUIREMENTS STATUS XMLschema RDF schema & Topic Maps Logic Layer Dynamic Languages Adaptive Applications Distributed AI AI Web Sevices Registration and Validation of Information Intelligent applications running directly over the Web, as well as, AI Web Services supported from AI service providers progressively increasing the percent of applications performed with adaptive, dynamic intelligent products. An overall increase can be expected in the total percentage of learning algorithms operating on the Web. RESULTS FIGURE 10- 6 Building AI Servers with the Semantic Strategic Planning Guidelines Strategic planning is the determination of the course of action and allocation of resources necessary to achieve selected long-term goals. But charting strategic direction for wireless communications networks in a diverse and competitive landscape is complicated by an economy that has introduced dynamic rules for success. Both the rate of technology change and the speed at which new technologies become available have increased. The shorter product life cycles resulting from this rapid diffusion of new technologies places a competitive premium on being able to quickly introduce new goods and services into the marketplace. In order to develop guidelines for strategic planning, we must consider enterprise goals. Traditionally driven by technology, network planning has evolved and now faces new challenges. But the network planning process itself includes two "discordant" requirements: first, to optimize of the network’s long-term investment while second, optimizing of the time to market for each new product. Finding the right balance is not easy. However, opportunities for developers and service providers will exist if they can reach all mobile users by developing infrastructure to support: < >any wireless carrierany wireless network (TDMA, CDMA, etc.)any wireless device (pager, digital cell phone, PDA)any wireless applicationsany Web format (XML, HTML, etc.)any wireless technology (WAP, SMS, pager, etc.)any medium (text, audio, text-to-speech, voice recognition or video)balancing innovations in software (e.g. adaptive software, nomadic software) against innovations in hardware (e.g. chip designs), balancing proprietary standards (motivating competition) against open standards (offering universal access), and balancing local(centralized) Web innovations (e.g. Web Services) against global(distributed) Web architectural evolution (e.g. the Semantic Web).A vendor dominates a market and sets a de facto standard (for example; POTS telephony from AT&T, or PC operating systems from Microsoft).Standards organizations establish standards (for example; HTML).Vendor and market collaboration that is not clearly attributable to any one organization (for example; TCP/IP or VCR formats). FIGURE 10-7 Possible Technology Timeline Conclusion In this chapter, we presented the components developed in earlier chapters and outlined a feasible framework for building the Intelligent Wireless Web, including our evaluation of the compatibility, integration and synergy issues facing the five merging technology areas: User Interface, Personal Space, Networks, Protocols, and Web Architecture. Ten conclusions you could reach from this book about building the Intelligent Wireless Web include: - User Interface - < >Speech recognition and speech synthesis offer attractive solutions to overcome the input and output limitations of small mobile devices, if they can overcome their own limitation of memory and processing power through the right balance for the client-server relationship between the small device and nearby embedded resources. The essential components for achieving this balance are new chip designs coupled with open adaptive nomadic software. The new chips may provide hardware for small devices that is small, light weight, and consumes little power while having the ability to perform applications by downloading adaptive software as needed.- Personal Space - < >Handheld, wearable and embedded devices are upgrading many existing office and home locations making computing access more universal through Wireless Personal Area Networks.Competition between the wireless networking standards Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11b, as well as general networking software, Jini and UpnP, will continue for several years as each finds strong points to exploit before a final winner emerges. MIT’s Project OXYGEN may introduce some innovative protocol alternatives within several years. - Networks - < >Wired and wireless networks will continue to merge and improve backbone performance to greater than the 10 Tera-bps range as well as produce improved interoperability. < >Over time, there will be a migration of core networks to optical fiber simply because photons carry a lot more information more efficiently and at less expense than electrons. By 2003, ultra-long haul (> 4000 km) high bandwidth optical transport will be deployed in the US. The quest for the last mile will be met with a combination of fiber and wireless. In dense metropolitan areas free-space optical networks will provide 622Mbps of bandwidth to buildings without digging the streets. Second generation LMDS and MDDS fixed wireless will be deployed to buildings requiring less bandwidth.- Internet Protocols - < >Intelligent networking software for routing and tracking will lead to general changes in IP networking protocols to include IPv6 and mobile IP. Sitting on top of the entire layer infrastructure may be a number of new control-plane software applications that may add intelligence to the network for smooth integration of routing (layer 3) and wavelength switching. - Web Architecture - < >Intelligent agents, intelligent software application and Artificial Intelligence applications from AI Servers Providers may make their way onto the Web in greater numbers as adaptive software, dynamic programming languages and Learning Algorithms are introduced into Web Services (including both .NET and J2EE architectures).The evolution of Web Architecture may allow intelligent applications to run directly on the Web by introducing XML, RDF/Topic Maps and a Logic Layer.A Web performance Index, or measure, may be developed to evaluate the progress of Internet progress in performing intelligent tasks utilizing learning algorithms.The Intelligent Wireless Web’s significant potential for rapidly completing information transactions may become an important contribution to global worker productivity. 1 [1] Bogdanowicz, K.D., Scapolo, F., Leijten, J., and Burgelman, J-C., “Scenarios for Ambient Intelligence in 2010,” ISTAG Report, European Commission, Feb. 2001.